Drinking water, lead

Shrivastava R, Upreti RK, Jain SR, Prasad KN, Seth PK, Chaturvedi UC (2004) Suboptimal chlorine treatment of drinking water leads to selection of multidrug-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Ecotoxicol Enviom Saf 58 277-283... 

Fluoride in drinking water appears to be most effective in preventing dental caries if consumed before the eruption of the permanent teeth. The optimum concentration in drinking water supplies is 0.5-1 ppm. Topical application is most effective if done just as the teeth erupt. There is little further benefit to giving fluoride after the permanent teeth are fully formed. Excess fluoride in drinking water leads to mottling of the enamel proportionate to the concentration above 1 ppm. 

Direct release of lead-containing industrial waste-water into surface water or ground-water may ultimately impact drinking water. Lead may also be present in drinking water because of leaching from old pipes, solder, water coolers, or faucets. Some historians attribute the fall of the Roman Empire to the effects of lead leaching from drinking-water pipes and wine casks. 

Bailey, R. J. and P. F. Russel (1981), Predicting drinking water lead levels. Environmental Technology Letters 2, 57-66. 

Lead in water is invisible at the concentrations found in drinking water. Lead-contaminated water does not look dirty or cloudy. 

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