Counter-dependence

A Geiger counter monitors radiation by detecting the ionization of a low-pressure gas, as shown in the illustration. The radiation ionizes atoms of the gas inside a cylinder and allows a brief flow of current between the electrodes. The resulting electrical signal can be recorded directly or converted into an audible click. The frequency of the clicks indicates the intensity of the radiation. A limitation of Geiger counters is that they do not respond well to 7 rays. Only about 1% of the 7-ray photons are detected, whereas all the (3 particles incident on the counter are detected. Because the efficiency of a Geiger counter depends on the size of the tube, a counter used to monitor a wide range of activities usually contains two tubes of different sizes. 

The counting equipment used to establish quantitation is radioassay and radioimmunoassays may be either a gamma counter or a liquid scintillation counter depending upon the isotope being used. Most assays use as a label and require a... 

The scattering function can be determined from theory for certain important special cases. The performance of optical single-particle counters depends on the variation of the scattering function with angular position. 

Optical counters depend on measuring light scattered from particles as they traverse a defined path. Such instruments can provide rapid, on-line... 

The limit of detection of an optical particle counter depends on instrument noise, Rayleigh scattering by the air molecules, and stray light resulting from imperfect optics. For commercial counters with an incandescent light source, the limit of resolution is about 0.3 /tm. Instruments with laser light sources can go down to about 70 nm. 

Electric field distortion. The gas multiplication in a proportional counter depends on the intensity of the electric field. Close to the ends of a cylindrical counter, the strength of the electric field becomes gradually less intense than in most of the counter volume. This effect produces lower pulses from proton recoils at the ends of the counter. Detectors with large length-to-diameter ratio are less affected by this problem. Theoreticcil corrections of this effect have been developed and successfully applied. ... 

Independence The final situation to be defined here is not strictly a relationship at all. In the context of this theory independence usually arises from an unsatisfactory resolution of counter-dependence, where the conflict is avoided by one party withdrawing from the relationship and proceeding to operate on their own. There is a place for independent working in organizations, but it is obviously better if this is as a result of a conscious decision that this is the best way to work in a particular situation, rather than as a result of an inability to resolve issues of authority and control. 

Since, as indicated above, many organizations have authoritarian role cultures, which will have developed relatively high levels of dependence in their employees, the problem arises as to how it is possible to move people from dependence to inter-dejaendence. Unfortunately, experience teaches us that there is no way to move directly from one to the other. It seems that it is only possible to move via counter-dependence or mutual dependence, or quite often, a combination of both. This is indicated by the arrows in Figure 6.1. 

Many managers will discover that, if in an attempt to move towards greater participation they attempt to give up control too quickly, subordinates move straight into counter-dependence. This will usually involve arguments as to who is responsible for the activity or decision involved. 

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