Core electrons Counter ions

As previously mentioned, molecules that are present within the interface may be able to bind or release electrons from the outer electron hull that surrounds the positively charged proton-neutron core—i.e., they can be ionized. In systems with interfacial boundaries containing ions that carry a charge, a spatial distribution of counter ions surrounding the interface will develop. The number of counter ions will decrease as the distance from the interface increases. The counter ion atmosphere is also referred to as the ion cloud. The... 

Thus, non-Ising behavior may be expected in systems determined by Coulomb and charge dipole interactions. However, due to the screening by counter ions the potential of the average force becomes short range. Therefore, Ising-like criticality may be restored as in liquid metals, where the electrons screen the interactions of the Coulomb interactions of the cores [84],... 

Both hole and charge are not necessary to be localized together on one atom and they can be delocalized over the whole molecule. In fact, the delocalization of the unpaired electron in conjugated system can lead to stable radical cations such as the Wurster salt. This compound is isolable and the chemical structure including its resonance forms are shown in Scheme 1. Aryl amine moieties are thought to be a main core structure in HTMs because amine atom is relatively easy to lose one electron and the resulting radical cation can be stabilized by resonance effect of adjacent aryl substituent. It is worth to note that the Wurster salt mentioned above is stabilized by two factors. One is a resonance effect by aryl substituents and the other is stabilized by counter ion, perchlorate. 

The first equation represents the equilibrium between hydrated Ag+ ions and Ag atoms in a single-crystal configuration. Alternatively, we may say that there is a heterogeneous thermodynamic equilibrium between Ag+ ions in the solid phase (where they are stabilized by the gas of free electrons) and Ag+ ions in the liquid phase (stabilized by interaction with water molecules). The forward reaction step corresponds to the anodic dissolution of a silver crystal. On an atomic level, one may say that a Ag" " core ion is transferred from the metallic phase to the liquid water phase. In an electrochemical cell, an electron flows from the Ag electrode (the working electrode) to the counter electrode each time that one Ag+ ion is transferred from the solid to the liquid phase across the electrochemical double layer. Although the electron flow is measured in the external circuit between the working... 

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