Collective behaviour

The collection behaviour of chromium species was examined as follows. Seawater (400 ml) spiked with 10 8 M chromium (III), chromium (VI), and chromium (III) organic complexes labelled with 51Cr was adjusted to the desired pH by hydrochloric acid or sodium hydroxide. 

The collection behaviour of chromium species was examined as follows. Seawater (400 ml) spiked with 10-8 M Crm, CrVI, and Crm organic complexes labelled with 51Cr was adjusted to the desired pH by hydrochloric acid or sodium hydroxide. An appropriate amount of hydrated iron (III) or bismuth oxide was added the oxide precipitates were prepared separately and washed thoroughly with distilled water before use [200]. After about 24 h, the samples were filtered on 0.4 pm nucleopore filters. The separated precipitates were dissolved with hydrochloric acid, and the solutions thus obtained were used for /-activity measurements. In the examination of solvent extraction, chromium was measured by using 51Cr, while iron and bismuth were measured by electrothermal atomic absorption spectrometry. The decomposition of organic complexes and other procedures were also examined by electrothermal atomic absorption spectrometry. 

The significant components must hold the variations common to all the objects in the data matrix the error is the individual shift from the collective behaviour. Many methods have been proposed to solve the problem of the significant components. 

A corollary is the question of how many individuals it takes to form a collectivity and to display collective properties how many molecules of water to have a boiling point, how many atoms to form a metal, how many components to display a phase transition Or, how do boiling point, metallic behaviour, phase transition, etc., depend on and vary with the number of components and the nature of their interaction ) In principle, any finite number of components leads to a collective behaviour that is only an approximation, however close it may well be, an asymptotic approach to the true value of a given property for an infinite number of units. 

The interdependencies are related to pathological behaviours where the malfunction of one component is affected by the functioning of another. As the systems are designed and operated independently among them, the collective behaviour is not always predictable—and more so in the presence of local abnormal actions. 

Why is there such a fascination for clusters, especially those of the transition metals Many reasons could be mentioned. One essential fact for the interest is that they occupy a position between molecular and solid-state chemistry. Transition metal clusters are ideal objects in order to study the metal-metal bond running from the single bond to the collective behaviour in the metallic state. 

The charged particle collective behaviour (and thus the plasma) exists only if random collision processes do not smear out the coherence of the motion of the charged particles. This means in practice that the frequency of the electron-neutral collisions has to remain smaller than the electron plasma frequency. 

In these past 10 years, it has been demonstrated that the TR-QELS method is a versatile technique that can provide much information on interfacial molecular dynamics [1-11]. In this chapter, we intend to show interfacial behaviour of molecules elucidated by the TR-QELS method. In Section 3.2, we present the principle, the historical background and the experimental apparatus for TR-QELS. The dynamic collective behaviour of molecules at liquid/liquid interfaces was first obtained by improving the time resolution of the TR-QELS method. In Section 3.3, we present an application of the TR-QELS method to a phase transfer catalyst system and describe results on the scheme of the catalytic reactions. This is the first application of the TR-QELS method to a practical liquid/liquid interface system. In Section 3.4, we show chemical oscillations of interfacial tension and interfacial electric potential. In this way, the TR-QELS method allows us to analyze non-linear adsorption/desorption behaviour of surfactant molecules in the system. 

As reviewed above, there have been many QELS studies on liquid surfaces. However, until several years ago, reports were scarce on molecular dynamics at liquid/liquid interfaces that used time courses of capillary wave frequency. Molecular collective behaviour at liquid/liquid interfaces from a QELS study was first reported by Zhang et al. in 1997 [3], and after that, other relevant experiments were reported [4-11]. 

The influence of the oven temperature on the collection behaviour has also been investigated. Several experiments have been performed with blank traps of cordierite and of silicon carbide, at different collection temperatures. For all these experiments, the additive concentration was 100 ppm. These experiments are listed in Table 2. 

ViUermaux, E., Y. Gagne, and E. J. Hopfinger. 1993. Self-sustained oscillations and collective behaviours in a lattice of jets. Applied Scientific Research 51 243-48. 

In an applied magnetic field at low temperatures (2 K and lower), one can observe a collective behaviour of the delocalised electrons at high fields (more than a few T) and with high-purity samples, namely magnetic-field oscillations. These are ... 

TTie subject of nanotechnology thus now covers the search for and synthesis of new materials of advanced technology which possess the sizes of nanometres the determination of their characteristics, and their practical application. Nanostructures are the bridge between individual atoms and molecules, where the laws of quantum mechanics apply, and bulk phases, whose properties usually result from the collective behaviour of billions of atoms. Individual nanostructures may be clusters, nanomolecules, nanocrystals, so-called quantum points, nanowires and nanotubes. They possess orderly structures and some large molecules can form single nanostructures [2], The quantum sizes and shapes of nanomolecules affect their mechanical, chemical, electrical, nuclear-electronic, electric-optical and dynamic properties. They may exhibit new, unique physicoehemical phenomena, quantitatively different from those of the bulk phase. This leads to the possible control of the action and application of nanostructures... 

Paturej J, Milchev A, Rostiashvili VG, Vilgis TA (2011) Polymer chain scission at constant tension - an example of force-induced collective behaviour. Europhys Lett 94 48003... 

H. Frohlich, Collective Behaviour of Non-Linearly Coupled Oscillating Fields, J. Collect. Phenom. 1, 101-109 (1973). 

H. Bilz, H. Biittner, and H. Frohlich, Electret Model for Collective Behaviour of Biological Systems, Z. Naturforsch. 36b, 208-212 (1981). 

E. Del Giudice, S. Doglia, M. Milani, and G. Vitiello, Spontaneous Synmietry Breakdown and Boson Condensation in Biology, Phys. Lett. A 95, 508-510 (1983) E. Del Giudice, S. Doglia, M. Milani, and G. Vitiello, A Quantum Field Theoretical Approach to the Collective Behaviour of Biological Systems, Nucl. Phys. B 251 [FS 13], 375-400 (1985). 

A plasma may be succinctiy defined as a partially ionized gas, with equal number densities of elections and positive icns, in which the charged particles ate "free" and possess collective behaviour. 

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