Coding principle, proteins

If PMF and sequence homology searches fail using available protein and EST databases, mass spectrum data can, in principle, be used to search genome databases (GenBank http //www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/). However, only a small percentage of large genomic sequences code for proteins such that bioinformatics still needs to accurately define exon-intron structures (Andersen and Mann, 2000). 

A code of principles accepted by 71 countries has been developed for consumer protection and fair practice in the trade of milk and milk products. Mainly the precise usage of the term milk and terms for different milk products is ensured. Confusion arising from the substitution of milk and milk products with nonmilk fats and/or nonmilk proteins is thus avoided. The use of misleading names and information for products that are not milk products is prohibited. Essentially, any product that resembles a dairy product is an imitation or substitute (synthetic) product. 

In gene therapy, production of missing or poorly expressed protein is induced by transferring the coding sequence to the cells in plasmid DNA [223]. In principle, the sequence of any protein can be transferred to the cells for protein production. Regulatory elements of DNA, such as cell specific and inducible promotors, can be... 

With these principles in mind, we refer the reader to valuable recent reviews, original reports, and discussions [65-68] of probes consisting of proteins, organic dyes, and nanoparticles such as quantum dots (QDs, [2, 68-77]) and other intriguing particles plastic microspheres and nanoparticles [78], multifunctional encoded particles [79], nanodisk codes [80], nano-flares [81], E-PEBBLES [82], C-dots [83], nanocrystal (NC)-encoded microbeads... 

While these preliminary data are encouraging, before it is possible to accept this bar code design as a standard reference material, it must be tested extensively and validated under different laboratory conditions for a range of different protein analytes commonly examined by IFIC, following principles discussed in previous chapters (Chapters 1 and 5). 

The genetic code is universal. All biological systems (or nearly all) use the same code. This principle has important consequences to the developments in rDNA. Thus, the code in messenger RNAs of a human cell can be translated by bacterial protein synthesis machinery into a protein of the same sequence as in the human cell. Production of human proteins in bacteria and other organisms would be immensely difficult, if not impossible, if each organism had a different genetic code. 

Transfer RNA molecules (tRNAs), messenger RNA, and many proteins participate in protein synthesis along with ribosomes. The link between amino acids and nucleic acids is first made by enzymes called aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases. By specifically linking a particular amino acid to each tRNA, these enzymes implement the genetic code. This chapter focuses primarily on protein synthesis in prokaryotes because it illustrates many general principles and is relatively well understood. Some distinctive features of protein synthesis in eukaryotes also are presented. 

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