Cloud temperature

Mixing with the environment lowers vertical wind velocities by reducing the in-cloud temperatures through evaporation and mechanical mixing with the cooler surrounding air. 

Interstellar medium (ISM) The tenuous medium between the stars with molecular densities as low as 1 molecule cm-3 rising to 106 molecules cm-3 in giant molecular clouds. Temperatures may be as low as 10-40 K. 

Carrying out an emulsion polymerization requires an awareness of the krafft point of an ionic surfactant and the cloud point of a nonionic surfactant. Micelles are formed only at temperatures above the Krafft point of an ionic surfactant. For a nonionic surfactant, micelles are formed only at temperatures below the cloud point. Emulsion polymerization is carried out below the cloud temperature of a nonionic surfactant and above the Krafft temperature of an ionic surfactant. 

R8 solution shows a cloud temperature of 16°C (Chu and Zhou 1996), compared to about 90 °C for P85. 

METSAT-1 Meteorological satellite launched on September 12, 2002, equipped with a scanning radiometer that has a resolution of 2 x 2 km to measure clouds, temperature, and water content in the atmosphere. 

A multiple regression analysis was also performed to determine the effect of precipitation depth and precipitation type (snow vs. rain) on the N03- concentration. Cloud temperature was used as a measure of precipitation type and was calculated as described in the next section. Although N03- concentrations were found to be inversely correlated with precipitation volume, there was no significant correlation between N03- concentrations and temperature. Therefore, at this location, the lower water content of snow events... 

Figure 1 shows a plot of the S04--/N03- ratio in the precipitation as a function of cloud temperature. A highly significant, positive correlation exists (r=0.75) between the S04--/N03- ratio and the temperature in the cloud. The ratio of S04--/N03- is used, rather than S04-- concentrations, to normalize for the effect of precipitation depth S04-- in precipitation also correlated with cloud temperature but to a lesser degree (r=0.35). 

The surfactant system Triton X 100 / BL 4.2 was chosen because its suitable cloud temperature range and the good solubilizing capability towards the ligands. Table II summarizes the properties of some investigated mixtures. 

Both gas pressure and liquid level in the reactor are integrating phenomena, and the choice of manipulated variables to control them is somewhat clouded. Temperature, pressure, and liquid level in the reactor all interact and their behavior is nonlinear. The gas purge stream from the process is very small, so its effectiveness in controlling pressure is doubtful,... 

Fig. 9.6 depicts two temperature dependences of the volume of a Triton-X-100 foam and of its lifetime. The foam volume, obtained by blowing gas through a filter for 3 min, practically does not change in the temperature range of 20-60°C and after the cloud temperature of the solution is reached at 65°C, the foam volume sharply decreases. In the same time the foam lifetime monotonously decreases within the whole temperature range. 

What these modeling people say is that if you retain a fixed cloud temperature rather than a fixed cloud altitude, that has a big feedback effect on the CO2 — of warmth — as much of an effect as the reduction of the albedo by melting of snow and ice — they both have about a one degree feedback effect. There is a Russian climatologist by the name of Borisenkov, who is skeptical about the CO2 warming because he thinks that the area of clouds will increase, not the height but the area. And I do not really know how to answer him. That is something which we really have to face at the present... 

Figure 6 Isotopic model including liquid and solid phases (Jouzel et al., 1980 Federer et al., 1982) with deuterium content variations of the droplets, drops, ice, and graupels as a function of cloud temperature. S HHaiistone IS the deuterium content of the water collected by hailstones.

This then requires specific kinetic routes for molecule formation (Herbst and Klemperer, 1973). The specific chemistry requires an energy source since the cloud temperature is 10-20 K. The gas density is near 10 molecules cm and is 99% hydrogen and helimn. The beautiful Horsehead nebula in Orion, a rich molecular region, is shown in Figure 17.3 the molecular cloud Barnard 68 is shown in Figure IV.d.i ... 

K. For the BN object (a protostar), the spectrum is optimized for a mixture of ices at representative temperatures of 23 K (amorphous), 77 K (amorphous), and 150K (crystalline ice). This shows that the BN have various temperatures ranging from circumstellar to molecular cloud temperatures, depending on the distance from the central protostar. 

We would like to use the tools developed above to determine whether aqueous-phase reaction between ozone and S(IV) is limited by mass transport in a typical cloud. The subsequent analysis was first presented by Schwartz (1988). Typical ambient conditions that need to be examined include droplet diameters in the 10-30 pm range, cloud pH values in the 2-6 range, and cloud temperatures varying from 0°C to 25°C. The reaction rate for the S(IV)-03 reaction is given by... 

The accidental release of gaseous hydrogen or die spillage of liquid hydrogen leads to the evolution and dispersion of a gas cloud whose shape is influenced by the type and rate of release and by the atmospheric conditions as well as by topography. Liquid hydrogen at 20 K which immediately starts to vaporize upon release, behaves like a heavier-than-air gas in the very first phase ( cold sink effect ). This short phase of negative buoyancy with a reduced heat and mass transfer due to the stable stratification effects is replaced by an enhanced positive buoyancy as soon as, due to continuous air entrainment from outside into the gas cloud, the cloud temperature has been raised to > 22 K. The dilution... 

Figure 3 Mean annual water of precipitation (rain/snow) versus mean annual temperatures. The correlation between <5 0 values and latitude (A) is a function of temperature (B). The rainout/fraction of water remaining, and hence the fraction of <5 0 values, is determined by the cloud temperatures. Latitude is the dominant effect shown here. The scatter among sites at similar latitude results from elevation differences as well as differences in the distance from the ocean.

The variation of the phase behavior with head group size is illustrated with reference to the Cj2EO homologous series [37, 46, 102, 103], where x=2-6, 8, 12. The simplest phase behavior is shown by C12EO5 (Fig. 14) which has H, Vj and phases and a region of partial miscibility or clouding (W + Lj). The cloud temperature (critical point) is defined as the lowest temperature at which the region of partial miscibility is seen. The maximum temperatures of the Hj and V] phases are 37° and 38 °C respectively while the L phase exists up to... 

For the remaining members of the series Ci2EO, and C12EO0 (dodecanol) no mesophases occur, only separate water and am-phiphile phases which show slight miscibility. With all the C12 surfactants no meso-phase exists above 80 °C, while the maximum mesophase melting temperature varies much less than the cloud temperatures. 

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