Chemically modified electrodes, and

The use of non-inert and chemically modified electrodes and other strategies for the detection of species that are difficult to analyze with the normal electrode materials have been reviewed.55 Photosensitization prior to amperometric detection is another tactic that has proved useful for the analysis of substances that are normally considered to be electrochemically inert.56 The use of pulsed amperometry has recently been reviewed.57... 

J.H. Pei and X.Y. Li, Xanthine and hypoxanthine sensors based on xanthine oxidase immobilized on a CuPtCl6 chemically modified electrode and liquid chromatography electrochemical detection. Anal. Chim. Acta 414, 205-213 (2000). 

A biological compound (an enzyme, usually) intended to improve the response of an electrode can be incorporated into it in two ways, namely (a) by altering the sensing surface in order to accommodate the biocatalysts [i.e. by constructing a (bio)chemically modified electrode] and (h) by using a membrane place in front of the surface electrode in order to trap the enzyme. The enzyme can be used in isolation (most often in a commercially available form) or be part of a tissue material or bacterial cells. 

Parra, V., Arrieta, A. A., Fernandez-Escudero, J.-A., Rodriguez-Mendez, M. L., and De Saja, J. A. (2006b). Electronic tongue based on chemically modified electrodes and voltammetry for the detection of adulterations in wines. Sens. Actuators B 118(1-2), 448-453. 

Chapters 9-19 deal with some practical aspects of electroanalytical chemistry. These chapters are aimed at giving the novice some insight into the nuts and bolts of electrochemical cells and solutions. In this second edition, further emphasis has been given to obtaining and maintaining clean solutions, and new chapters have been added on chemically modified electrodes and electrochemical studies at reduced temperature. 

This brief review attempts to summarize the salient features of chemically modified electrodes, and, of necessity, does not address many of the theoretical and practical concepts in any real detail. It is clear, however, that this field will continue to grow rapidly in the future to provide electrodes for a variety of purposes including electrocatalysis, electrochromic displays, surface corrosion protection, electrosynthesis, photosensitization, and selective chemical concentration and analysis. But before many of these applications are realized, numerous unanswered questions concerning surface orientation, bonding, electron-transfer processes, mass-transport phenomena and non-ideal redox behavior must be addressed. This is a very challenging area of research, and the potential for important contributions, both fundamental and applied, is extremely high. 

Impedance spectroscopy is an effective technique for probing the features of chemically-modified electrodes and for understanding electrochemical reaction rates (87,88). Impedance is the totally complex resistance encountered... 

High temperatures are required to melt the crystalline domains in the high-EW samples and promote dissolution. Martin et have recently found that Nafions with EWs of 1100 and 1200 dissolve in both 50 50 propanol-water and 50 50 ethanol-water, at 250°C and elevated pressure, because the crystallites of the materials are eliminated. McCain and Covitch have also reported a similar dissolution technique. The ionic membrane was chemically converted into the nonionic precursor (sulfonyl fluoride) form prior to the dissolution process. Due to the nonionic nature of the precursor, it dissolves under relatively mild conditions. These dissolution techniques for Nafion polymers provide an important means for preparation of chemically modified electrodes and membranes of any desired geometry. ... 

T. Buch-Rasmussen, Determination of d-glucose in undiluted whole blood using chemically modified electrodes and segmented sample injection in a flow system, Anal. Chim. Acta 237 (1990) 405. 

H. J. Wieck, Characterization of Immobilized Enzyme Chemically Modified Electrodes and Their Application in Flow Injection Analysis. Diss. Abstr. Int. B., 44 (1983) 1449. 

The research literature on electroactive polymers is truly enormous and can daunt even the most hardened researcher. The vast quantity of material reported in the literature can also intimidate beginning graduate students. Hence the present book. The original idea for this book arose as a result of a series of lectures on chemically modified electrodes and electroactive polymers given by the writer to final year undergraduates at... 

Labuda J, Vanickova M, Buckova M, Korgova E (2000) Development in voltammetric analysis with chemically modified electrodes and biosensors. Chem Papers 54 95-103... 

Skladal P (1992) Detection of OTganophosphate and carbamate pesticides using disposable biosensOTS based on chemically modified electrodes and immobilized cholinesterase. Anal Chim Acta 269 281-287... 

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