Chemical process, scientific development

Production of a metal is usually achieved by a sequence of chemical processes represented as a flow sheet. A limited number of unit processes are commonly used in extractive metallurgy. The combination of these steps and the precise conditions of operations vary significantly from metal to metal, and even for the same metal these steps vary with the type of ore or raw material. The technology of extraction processes was developed in an empirical way, and technical innovations often preceded scientific understanding of the processes. 

Since 1950, significant technological advances have been made in chemical process safety. Today, safety is equal in importance to production and has developed into a scientific discipline that includes many highly technical and complex theories and practices. Examples of the technology of safety include... 

In 1985, AIChE established the Center for Chemical Process Safety (CCPS) in response to the Bhopal tragedy. Manufacturers, government, and scientific research groups sponsor CCPS, which has published extensive industry guidance in the area of process safety technology and management. CCPS recently produced a safety alert on reactive hazards, and a more comprehensive product is under development. 

Modem chemical analyzers, ranging from research and laboratory applications to process control, developed in a rather chaotic manner over several decades. There indeed was no master plan and, in fact, it was not until the late 1950s that a concerted attempt was made to classify analytical instruments m a scientific way. Table 1 is an updated, but abridged version of a summary prepared and first published in 19571. The thrust of the summary is directed toward industrial instrumentation, although it embraces the principal laboratory instruments as well. 

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