Chain Transfer and Inhibition

If 3 s 4 s kp, the interposing of such an agent will not change v , but it will decrease x , since more than one dead polymer chain has been formed from one initiating 

Y has a value of 1 if termination is by coupling and a value of 2 if termination is by disproportionation 

Rate of molecule generation Rearranging and substituting Equation 4.17 into 4.18, 

Ci is the chain transfer constant for the agent A present at concentration [AJ 

Listed below is data generated by the experimental polymerization of MMA. The initial concentration of MMA, [M]q, is assumed to be 9.35 mol/liter. The %-CTA is the mole percent CTA with respect to monomer. The CTA used was lauryl mercaptan. 

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Chain transfer, the reaction of a propagating radical with a non-radical substrate to produce a dead polymer chain and a new radical capable of initiating a new polymer chain, is dealt with in Chapter 6. There are also situations intermediate between chain transfer and inhibition where the radical produced is less reactive than the propagating radical but still capable of reinitiating polymerization. In this case, polymerization is slowed and the process is termed retardation or degradative chain transfer. The process is mentioned in Section 5.3 and, when relevant, in Chapter 6. 

Five different types of rate constants are of concern in radical chain polymerization—those for initiation, propagation, termination, chain transfer, and inhibition. The use of polymerization data under steady-state conditions allows the evaluation of only the initiation rate constant kd (or kt for thermal initiation). The ratio kp/k J2 or kp/kl can be obtained from Eq. 3-25, since Rp, Rj, and [M] are measurable. Similarly, the chain-transfer constant k /kp and the inhibition constant kz/kp can be obtained by any one of several methods discussed. However, the evaluation of the individual kp, k ktr, and kz values under steady-state conditions requires the accurate determination of the propagating radical concentration. This would allow the determination of kp from Eq. 3-22 followed by the calculation of kt, kIr, and kz from the ratios kp/ltj2, ktr/kp, and kz/kp. 

Rt and [M ]s are calculated from Eqs. 3-22 and 3-23, respectively. klr and kz are calculated from the values of chain transfer and inhibition constants. 

Many compounds are known that fall in the intermediate zone between chain transfer and inhibition reagents. 

Elsewhere in this chapter we shall see that other reactions-notably, chain transfer and chain inhibition-also need to be considered to give a more fully developed picture of chain-growth polymerization, but we shall omit these for the time being. Much of the argumentation of this chapter is based on the kinetics of these three mechanistic steps. We shall describe the rates of the three general kinds of reactions by the notation Rj, Rp, and R for initiation, propagation, and termination, respectively. 

Primary termination and the accompanying change in the order of dependence of Rp on [I] may also be found in the Trommsdorff polymerization region (Sec. 3-10). Situations also arise where the order of dependence of Rp on [I] will be greater than one-half. This behavior may be observed in the Trommsdorff region if the polymer radicals do not undergo termination or under certain conditions of chain transfer or inhibition (Sec. 3-7). 

Winyl polymerization as a rule is sensitive to a number of reaction variables, notably temperature, initiator concentration, monomer concentration, and concentration of additives or impurities of high activity in chain transfer or inhibition. In detailed studies of a vinyl polymerization reaction, especially in the case of development of a practical process suitable for production, it is often desirable to isolate the several variables involved and ascertain the effect of each. This is difficult with the conventional batch polymerization technique, because the temperature variations due to the highly exothermic nature of vinyl polymerization frequently overshadow the effect of other variables. In a continuous polymerization process, on the other hand, the reaction can be carried out under very closely controlled conditions. The effect of an individual variable can be established accurately. In addition, compared to a batch process, a continuous process normally gives a much greater throughput per unit volume of reactor capacity and usually requires less labor. 

The oxidation of hydrocarbons, reactions (1), (la), (2)—(4), is inhibited to an extent that depends on the efficiency of chain termination, reactions (5), (6), (8)—(10), on the possibility of chain transfer and regeneration, reactions (lb), (5) and (7), and on the possibility of degradation of hydroperoxides to inert products, reaction (11). Amines and phenols are known to be efficient chain breaking inhibitors, while sulphides promote reaction (11). 

Haddleton, D. M., et al. (1997). Identifying the nature of the active species in the polymerization of methacrylates inhibition of methyl methacrylate homopolymerizations and reactivity ratios for copolymerization of methyl methacrylate/n-butyl methacrylate in classical anionic, alkyUithium/trialkylaluminum-initiated, group transfer polymerization, atom transfer radical polymerization, catalytic chain transfer, and classical free radical polymerization. Macromolecules, 30(14) 3992-3998. 

In the first case (reaction (A)) this could form the initiation stage of a polymerization reaction through the double bonds of the diene polymer. In turn this reaction could involve those other reaction mechanisms associated with double bond polymerization such as chain transfer to solvent, to monomer and to polymer chain termination and inhibition by free radicals including those from antioxidants. 

In the next three sections we consider initiation, termination, and propagation steps in the free-radical mechanism for addition polymerization. One should bear in mind that two additional steps, inhibition and chain transfer, are being ignored at this point. We shall take up these latter topics in Sec. 6.8. 

Inhibitors are characterized by inhibition constants which are defined as the ratio of the rate constant for transfer to inhibitor to the propagation constant for the monomer in analogy with Eq. (6.87) for chain transfer constants. For styrene at 50°C the inhibition constant of p-benzoquinone is 518, and that for O2 is 1.5 X 10. The Polymer Handbook (Ref. 3) is an excellent source for these and most other rate constants discussed in this chapter. 

The highly conductive class of soHds based on TTF—TCNQ have less than complete charge transfer (- 0.6 electrons/unit for TTF—TCNQ) and display metallic behavior above a certain temperature. However, these soHds undergo a metal-to-insulator transition and behave as organic semiconductors at lower temperatures. The change from a metallic to semiconducting state in these chain-like one-dimensional (ID) systems is a result of a Peieds instabihty. Although for tme one-dimensional systems this transition should take place at 0 Kelvin, interchain interactions lead to effective non-ID behavior and inhibit the onset of the transition (6). 

Other radical reactions not covered in this chapter are mentioned in the chapters that follow. These include additions to systems other than carbon-carbon double bonds [e.g. additions to aromatic systems (Section 3.4.2.2.1) and strained ring systems (Section 4.4.2)], transfer of heteroatoms [eg. chain transfer to disulfides (Section 6.2.2.2) and halocarbons (Section 6.2.2.4)] or groups of atoms [eg. in RAFT polymerization (Section 9.5.3)], and radical-radical reactions involving heteroatom-centered radicals or metal complexes [e g. in inhibition (Sections 3.5.2 and 5.3), NMP (Section 9.3.6) and ATRP (Section 9.4)]. 

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