Carrion flies

The arrival of blowflies, and subsequently their larvae, is followed quickly by the arrival of the flesh flies (Diptera Sarcophagidae), other carrion flies (Diptera Muscidae), and predaceous beetle species such as rove beetles (Coleoptera Staphylinidae), carrion beetles (Silphidae), clown beetles (Histeridae), skin beetles (Dermestidae), and checkered beetles (Cleridae). A variety of other fly families may be found in association with the body, and hide beetles (Trogidae) and larvae of some of the aforementioned beetle groups may feed on carrion itself, often on remains of hair, skin, and clothing in late decomposition (Smith 1986). 

These sites attract enough flies that beetles are assured of a satisfying meal. But what if the sites themselves are in short supply Dung and carrion are in strong demand among local consumers and do not long persist on the forest floor. When they are absent, the beetles must look elsewhere for food. Showing considerable... 

Many flowering plants attract insect pollinators by releasing odorant molecules that mimic an insect s natural food sources or potential egg-laying sites. Plants pollinated by flies or beetles that normally feed on or lay their eggs in dung or carrion sometimes use foulsmelling compounds to attract these insects. 

The most important effect of burial on decomposition is the increase in time required for biomass reduction, relative to exposed carrion (Smith 1986). Smith (1986) suggested that blowflies, which are responsible for the majority of biomass reduction on carrion, are excluded from the corpse at a depth of just 2.5 cm. However, Simpson and Strongman (2002) reported the occurrence of the blowfly Cynomyopsis cadaverina on carrion buried at a depth of 30 cm. Rodriguez and Bass (1985) also observed Sarcophagidae (flesh fly) and blowfly larvae on burials at a depth of 1 ft, as did VanLaerhoven and Anderson (1999). In the latter study, adult flies were observed attempting to... 

In cases where exhumation occurs a considerable time after burial, the activity of blowflies on carrion may be indicated only by the presence of empty puparia in soil. Puparia may persist for hundreds of years following death (Gilbert and Bass 1967). Certain fly species are seasonal, and the presence of their puparia maybe a useful indicator as to the seasonality of a death or burial (ibid.). 

Gibbs, J. P. and Stanton, E. J. (2001). Habitat fragmentation and arthropod community change Carrion beetles, phoretic mites, and flies. Ecol. Appl. 11,79-85. 

The majority of experimental studies in this field have used pig carcasses as models for human decomposition. However, one study has been reported that used human cadavers in an experimental capacity (Rodriguez and Bass 1985). The study conducted in Knoxville, Tennessee, involved the burial of six unembalmed human cadavers at varying depths and subsequent exhumation at varying intervals. Carrion insect activity was only observed on the bodies buried at a depth of approximately 30 cm (1 ft.). The insects were identified as larvae, pupae, and adults of the family Calliphoridae and Sarcophagidae. It was speculated that the adult flies laid their eggs in the small crevices in the soils above the remains and that the larvae then burrowed to the cadaver where further development ensued. The study was able to demonstrate that the depth at which the cadaver was buried directly affected access by carrion insects and subsequently the rate of decomposition. 

Vitamin A3 3-hydroxyretinol 2-winged flies feeding on carrion Rhodonine3()... 

The form of Vitamin A has historically been associated with the original environment of the species during its evolution. However, the above table suggests the form is chosen based on the diet, the actual form of the carotinoid or retinoid absorbed by the digestive system. This clarification provides a reasonable rationale for the change of vitamin (and chromophore) type with type in migrating aquatic animals. It also explains why the carrion eating flies exhibit a special type of vitamin. 

Clostridium botulinum is widespread in soil and only requires warm temperatures, a protein source and an anaerobic environment to become active and produce toxin. Decomposing vegetation or invertebrates in summer can provide ideal conditions. Birds are most commonly affected by type C toxin, type E toxin being less important. Usually, fly larvae (maggots) feed on animal carcasses and store the toxin birds such as ducks which then eat the maggots can develop botulism even if only a small number (three or four) larvae are consumed. Birds can also ingest the toxin directly if they are carrion-feeders. As C. botulinum toxin affects the central nervous system transmission, affected birds are unable to fly or walk. Birds with paralysed neck muscles cannot hold up their heads and may therefore drown. Outbreaks are relatively common in the US and Canada from July to September and may claim the lives of thousands of birds. 

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