Bond energies electron diffraction/photoelectron

Stipp, S. L., and M. F. Hochella, (1991), "Structure and Bonding Environments at the Calcite Surface as Observed with X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) and Low Energy Electron Diffraction (LEED)", Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 5516, 1723-36. 

Over the past 10 years a multitude of new techniques has been developed to permit characterization of catalyst surfaces on the atomic scale. Low-energy electron diffraction (LEED) can determine the atomic surface structure of the topmost layer of the clean catalyst or of the adsorbed intermediate (7). Auger electron spectroscopy (2) (AES) and other electron spectroscopy techniques (X-ray photoelectron, ultraviolet photoelectron, electron loss spectroscopies, etc.) can be used to determine the chemical composition of the surface with the sensitivity of 1% of a monolayer (approximately 1013 atoms/cm2). In addition to qualitative and quantitative chemical analysis of the surface layer, electron spectroscopy can also be utilized to determine the valency of surface atoms and the nature of the surface chemical bond. These are static techniques, but by using a suitable apparatus, which will be described later, one can monitor the atomic structure and composition during catalytic reactions at low pressures (< 10-4 Torr). As a result, we can determine reaction rates and product distributions in catalytic surface reactions as a function of surface structure and surface chemical composition. These relations permit the exploration of the mechanistic details of catalysis on the molecular level to optimize catalyst preparation and to build new catalyst systems by employing the knowledge gained. 

Among the ex situ methods that can be employed in surface analysis, low-energy electron diffraction (LEED) and x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) can give the crystal structure and the nature of the surface ad-layers after the electrochemical and adsorption experiments as explained in this chapter [31,32]. Among the in situ non-electrochemical techniques, the radiotracer method [33] gives information about the adsorbed quantities however, infrared spectroscopy in FTIR mode [34] allows the identity of the bonding of the adsorbed molecules, and finally ellipsometry [35] makes possible the study of extremely thin films. Recently, some optical methods such as reflectance, x-ray diffraction, and second harmonic generation (SHG) [36] have been added to this list. 

Stipp S, Hochella MF (1991) Stiucture and bonding environments at the calcite surface as observed with X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and low energy electron diffraction. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 55 1723-1736... 

Several techniques that provide information about composition and structure on the molecular level were discussed. For instance, secondary ion mass spectroscopy (SIMS), XPS which provide information about surface composition and the chemical environment and bonding of surface species, and ultraviolet photoelectron spectroscopy (UPS), which probes the density of electronic states in the valence band of materials. Also, the low energy electron diffraction (LEED) and high resolution energy electron loss spectroscopy (HREELS) are electronscattering techniques that are uniquely suited to yield the structure of the surface... 

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