Biological energy coupled reactions releasing

All of these reactions release energy. In biological oxidations much of the energy is utilized to form ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate (Section 15-5F). That is to say, electron-transfer reactions are coupled with ATP formation. The overall process is called oxidative phosphorylation. 

Coupled reactions play a crucial role in our survival. In biological systems, enzymes facilitate a wide variety of nonspontaneous reactions. For example, in the human body, food molecules, represented by glucose (C6Hx206), are converted to carbon dioxide and water during metabolism with a substantial release of free energy ... 

In biological systems, the most frequent mechanism of oxidation is the removal of hydrogen, and conversely, the addition of hydrogen is the common method of reduction. Nicotinamide-adenine dinucleotide (NAD) and nicotinamide-adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP) are two coenzymes that assist in oxidation and reduction. These cofactors can shuttle between biochemical reactions so that one drives another, or their oxidation can be coupled to the formation of ATP. However, stepwise release or consumption of energy requires driving forces and losses at each step such that overall efficiency suffers. 

Electron transfer in proteins generally involves redox centers separated by long distances. The electronic interaction between redox sites is relatively weak and the transition state for the ET reaction must be formed many times before there is a successhil conversion from reactants to products the process is electronically nonadiabatic. A Eandau-Zener treatment of the reactant-product transition probability produces the familiar semiclassical expression for the rate of nonadiabatic electron transfer between a donor (D) and acceptor (A) held at fixed distance (equation 1). Biological electron flow over long distances with a relatively small release of free energy is possible because the protein fold creates a suitable balance between AG° and k as well as adequate electronic coupling between distant redox centers. 

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