Behavioral studies vertebrates

Numerous behavioral studies have shown that chemoreceptors in crustaceans occur on all appendages and many parts of the body. Among these, the antennules (first antennae), second antennae, legs, and mouthparts are the major chemosensory organs (Brock 1926 Spiegel 1927 Hindley 1975) (Fig. 7.1). Based on the perceived duplicity of chemical senses in vertebrates, several attempts were made to... 

Of all behavioral studies of vertebrates, those of small mammals have shown the widest use of radionuclide tagging. Perhaps this is the result of the relatively small home range of these mammals as well as the interest of population ecologists in interpreting the population dynamics of this group. Gerrard (1969) reported 36 studies that utilized external or subcutaneous radionuclide marking... 

Carmichael L. (1926). The development of behavior in vertebrates experimentally removed from the influence of external stimulation. Psychol Rev., 33, 51-58 Carmichael, L. (1927). A further study of the development of behavior in vertebrates experimentally removed from the influence of external stimulation. Psychol Rev., 34, 34-47... 

Speaking generally, many laboratory studies have shown behavioral effects in vertebrates or invertebrates or both exposed to organochlorine, carbamate, OP, pyre-throid, and neonicotinoid insecticides. However, the critical questions are (1) to what extent have these effects been demonstrated at normal levels of exposure in the field and (2), if such effects have occurred in the field, have there been knock-on effects at the population level These issues will be returned to in Section 16.7. 

Most insecticides, especially the organophosphate group, cause neurotoxicity as their major mode of action. Assessment of the neurotoxicity includes neurochemical endpoints such as cholinesterase (including acetylcholinesterase, which is the major neurotransmitter in vertebrates such as fish, and other enzymes such as butyrylcholinesterase) inhibition and behavioral endpoints such as swimming speed [79]. Studies done in rats show the neurotoxic action of insecticides such as dimethoate, methyl parathion, dichlorvos, ethyl parathion or propoxur after a prolonged exposure [80,81]. 

These are exciting times in the field of chemosensory reception in general and olfaction in particular. In the decade since the landmark identification of a novel class of candidate odorant receptors (ORs) in rats (Buck and Axel, 1991), we have seen an explosion of similar studies involving other vertebrate as well as several insect species. In addition to an ever-increasing wealth of behavioral and physiological studies, insect systems provide arguably the most robust experimental system for the study of olfaction as well as a profound demonstration of the universal conservation of olfactory signal transduction mechanisms. 

Most of the studies indicate that denaturation of muscle proteins plays the dominant role in the quality changes of the frozen stored meats. The muscle proteins of fish and other aquatic animals have been found to be much less stable than those of beef animals, pigs and poultry (1 ). The present paper will be limited primarily to fish muscle as one representative of vertebrate muscle and it will also deal primarily with the behavior of fish proteins at sub-zero temperatures. In order to do a thorough analysis within the space limit permitted, focus will be on the changes of the proteins per se leaving peripheral problems to other reviews (2-18). 

---