Bases examples

Write the formulas for conjugate acids and bases (Example 10.1). 

Calculate the concentrations of ions in a solution of a strong acid or base (Example 10.2). 

Use K, values to predict the relative strengths of two acids or two bases (Example 10.5). 

We can adjust the pH of a buffer solution by adding some acid to lower it or some base to raise it. Another way to adjust the pH of a buffer by adding more salt (which supplies the conjugate acid or base). Example 11.2 shows how to calculate the effect of added acid or base on the pH of a buffer. 

There exist a considerable number of compounds containing labile chlorine which bring about sulfur-less vulcanization at levels of approximately 3 phr [64] as basic chemicals such as lead oxides and amines are needed. Additionally, it may be assumed that diene mbbers are cross-linked by such systems through the formation of C-C links this would mean, initially, hydrogen chloride is split off and later neutralized by the base. Examples of chemicals that act in the manner are listed below ... 

A variety of drugs have been developed that act as sedatives, antidepressants, or stimulants some of these are effective in treating psychiatric disorders. Many of these drugs are weak bases. Examples are barbiturates such as phenobarbital, tranquilizers like diazepam (Valium), and amphetamines derived from phenylethylamine. 

As long as the buffer solution contains a weak base as a major species, a small amount of hydronium ion added to the solution will be neutralized completely. Figure 18-2 shows two hydronium ions added to a portion of a buffer solution. When a hydronium ion collides with a weak base ion, proton transfer occurs, forming a water molecule and the conjugate acid of the weak base. Example examines another buffer solution at the molecular level. 

Buffers are necessary to adjust and maintain the pH. Buffering agents can be salts of a weak acid and a weak base. Examples are ammonium, potassium, sodium carbonates (caustic soda), bicarbonates, and hydrogen phosphates [1345]. Weak acids such as formic acid, fumaric acid, and sulfamic acid also are recommended. Common aqueous buffer ingredients are shown in Table 17-8. 

Proton acceptor (Bronsted-Lowry base) example amine... 

Thus, Lewis s definition is a much broader definition that includes coordination compound formation as acid-base reactions, besides Arrhenius and Lowry-Bronsted acids and bases. Examples ... 

Any chemical species having a vacant orbital and thus acting as an electron-pair acceptor from a Lewis base. Examples of Lewis acids include BF3, Fe +, Na, Ca, and SO3. See Lewis Base Acidity Lewis Acidity... 

I believe that by following the broadly based example of these SOPs, new as well as experienced companies can benefit by enhancing their existing documentation to meet FDA and other regulatory requirements. Currently, no GMP document specifically describes the format of these validation SOPs. 

All these electrolytes are neutral in Bronsted acid-base properties. Although rather exceptional, an acid, a base, or a pH buffer may be added to the supporting electrolyte of neutral salts. The acid-base system to be selected depends on the purpose of the measurement. We often use trifluoromethanesulfonic acid (CF3S03F1) as a strong acid acetic acid, benzoic acid, or phenol as a weak acid an amine or pyridine as a weak base and tetraalkylammonium hydroxide (ILtNOH) as a strong base. Examples of buffer systems are the mixtures of picric acid and its R4N-salt and amines and their PlCl04-salts. Here, we should note that the acid-base reactions in aprotic solvents considerably differ from those in water, as discussed in Chapter 3. 

Heavier metal ions and metal complexes can find sites on nitrogen atoms of the nucleic acid bases. Examples are the platinum complex cisplatin and the DNA-cleaving antibiotic neocarzinostatin (Box 5-B). Can metals interact with the n electrons of stacked DNA bases A surprising result has been reported for intercalating complexes of ruthenium (Ru) and rhodium (Rh). Apparent transfer of electrons between Ru (II) and Rh (III) over distances in excess of 4.0 nm, presumably through the stacked bases, has been observed,181 as has electron transfer from other ions.181a Stacked bases are apparently semiconductors.182... 

Nucleophilic Substitution Route. Commercial synthesis of poly(arylethersulfone)s is accomplished almost exclusively via the nucleophilic substitution polycondensation route. This synthesis route, discovered at Union Carbide in the eady 1960s (3,4), involves reaction of the bisphenol of choice with 4,4 -dichlorodiphenylsulfone in a dipolar aprotic solvent in the presence of an alkali base. Examples of dipolar aprotic solvents include AT-methyl-2-pyrrolidinone (NMP), dimethyl acetamide (DMAc), sulfolane, and dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO). Examples of suitable bases are sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, and potassium carbonate. In the case of polysulfone (PSF) synthesis, the reaction is a two-step process in which the dialkali metal salt of bisphenol A (1) is first formed in situ from bisphenol A [80-05-7] by reaction with the base (eg, two molar equivalents of NaOH),... 

Examples of the two macromolecular nomenclature systems are as follows. For source-based names for homopolymers and copolymers polyacrylonitrile, poly(mcthyl methacrylate), polylacrylamidc-co-vinylpynolidinone), polybutadiene-felocJ-polystyrene, and poly(propyl methacrylate)-gra/t-poly( 1-vinylnaphthalene). Structure-based examples arc as follows polyloxy-l,4-phcnylcnct (1), po]y(oxycthyl-cncoxytcrcph-thaloy) (2) and poly[imino(l-oxo-l,6-hexanediyl)J (3). 

HBr + H- H- + Br2 — HBr + Br. properties The characteristics of matter Examples vapor pressure color density temperature, protective oxide An oxide that protects a metal from oxidation. Example aluminum oxide, proton p A positively charged subatomic particle found in the nucleus of an atom, protonation Proton transfer to a Bronsted base. Example 2 H30+(aq) + S2-(s) — ... 

A Lewis acid is an electron-pair acceptor and a Lewis base is an electron-pair donor. Lewis acids include not only H+ but also other cations and neutral molecules that can accept a share in a pair of electrons from a Lewis base. Examples of Lewis acids are Al3+, Cu2+, BF3, SO3, and C02. 

Certain non-metal oxides are classified as neutral. These oxides do not react with acids or bases. Examples include carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen(n) oxide (nitrogen monoxide, NO), and nitrogen(i) oxide (nitrous oxide or dinitrogen oxide, N20). 

Catalytic membrane reactors are not yet commercial. In fact, this is not surprising. When catalysis is coupled with separation in one vessel, compared to separate pieces of equipment, degrees of freedom are lost. The MECR is in that respect more promising for the short term. Examples are the dehydrogenation of alkanes in order to shift the equilibrium and the methane steam reforming for hydrogen production (29,30). An enzyme-based example is the hydrolysis of fats described in the following. 

Hardness and softness as chemical concepts were presaged in the literature as early as 1952, in a paper by Mulliken [138], but did not become widely used till they were popularized by Pearson in 1963 [139]. In the simplest terms, the hardness of a species, atom, ion or molecule, is a qualitative indication of how polarizable it is, i.e. how much its electron cloud is distorted in an electric field. The adjectives hard and soft were said to have been suggested by D.H. Busch [140], but they appear in Mulliken s paper [138], p. 819, where they characterize the response to spatial separation of the energy of acid-base complexes. The analogy with the conventional use of these words to denote resistance to deformation by mechanical force is clear, and independent extension, by more than one chemist, to the concept of electronic resistance, is no surprise. The hard/soft concept proved useful, particularly in rationalizing acid-base chemistry [141]. Thus a proton, which cannot be distorted in an electric field since it has no electron cloud (we ignore the possibility of nuclear distortion) is a very hard acid, and tends to react with hard bases. Examples of soft bases are those in which sulfur electron pairs provide the basicity, since sulfur is a big fluffy atom, and such bases tend to react with soft acids. Perhaps because it was originally qualitative, the hard-soft acid-base (HSAB) idea met with skepticism from at least one quarter Dewar (of semiempirical fame) dismissed it as a mystical distinction between different kinds of acids and bases [142]. For a brief review of Pearson s contributions to the concept, which has been extended beyond strict conventional acid-base reactions, see [143],... 

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