Australia lithium

Cade, J. F. J. (1949). Lithium salts in the treatment of psychotic excitement. Medical Journal of Australia, 2, 349-352. 

Of interest is the finding of a lesion confined to the distal nephron that has been described in patients taking lithium but not in psychiatric conhols [67,103-106]. Several studies from Australia have reported this lesion, which appears to involve the distal convoluted tubules and collecting ducts of hthium-treated patients... 

In 2008, the world s largest consumer of lithium minerals and compounds was the United States. The major producer of lithium chemicals worldwide was Chile. Other countries involved in lithium production included Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Canada, China, Portugal, the United States, and Zimbabwe. Specific information on U.S. production was not released in order to preserve trade secrets. 

The most important mineral for the industrial extraction of lithium is spodumene (LiAlSi206), which is found together with lepidolite, petalite and amblygonite (all with Li contents of 4 to 7%) and in salt lakes. The largest known reserves are in Chile (largest known deposit), Australia, USA and Canada. The main producer countries are the USA (North Carolina), Chile, Australia, Russia, Zimbabwe, Brazil and China. The worldwide reserves including the lithium content in salt lakes is estimated to be 7.3 10 t (as lithium), of which 60% is in salt lakes. 

Lithium occurs in silicate ores (minerals that principally contain silicon and oxygen) in association with aluminum and the other alkalis The principal ore is spodumene (LiAlSi2Og). Lithium mining occurs mostly in the United States, Russia, China, and Australia, and in addition, it is extracted from salt deposits in Chile. 

In 1949, Cade, in Australia, showed that lithium salts would control the manic phase of manic-depressive psychosis. This was the first effective psychotherapeutic agent of any kind, ante-dating even chlorpromazine. Possibly on account of the remoteness of his country. Cade s discovery was slow in gaining acceptance but is, today, the standard treatment (see further. Section 11.0). 

Certain rare phosphate minerals such as Monazite, (Ce,Li,Th)P04 and Xenotime, YPO4, are important sources of rare earth elements which they frequently contain as impurities. Monazite, which is mined in Brazil, Travancore and Australia, is the most important commercial source of thorium (Chapter 3.5). One commercial source of lithium is Nalipoite, NaLi2P04, which is present in some natural brines. Phosphorite ore itself is a potentially valuable source of Uranium (Chapter 5). A few orthophosphate minerals are sometimes useful as gemstones (Table 5.23). 

The biggest lithium reserves are located in the so-called lithium triangle on the continent of South America where Chile, Argentina tind Bolivia border on each other. Another big occurrence of lithium brines is in China. Considerable lithium mineral reserves can be foimd in Australia, Canada, the USA and China. The other lithium-producing countries such as Portugal and Zimbabwe have few lithium reserves. 

According to a report by Roskill Information Services published in 2003, the lithium market is characterized by a high degree of consolidation. Actually, three major producers—Sons of Gwalia in Australia, Tanco in Canada, and Bikita Minerals in Zimbabwe—represent the major lithium mineral producers, while Sociedad Quimica y Minera de Chile SA (SQM) and Sociedad Chilena de Litio (SCL) control the world s supply of lithium carbonate, and Chemetall GmbH of Germany and FMC Corp. of the USA dominate the manufacture of lithium metal and hthium chemicals. 

The production of lithium as ores and brines is not published because of the importance of the element in nuclear weapons. The USGS world production value [12.5] for the year 2000 is 14 000 tonnes but does not include US production. Chile produced 5300 tonnes, Australia, China and Russia at least 2000 tonnes each. 

Dr. Li s ciurent work focuses on electrochemistry and catalysis. Her research interests include anode materials on lithium batteries, flow batteries, and MOFs (metal-organic frameworks) for catalytic applications. She has published more than 20 articles in various peer-reviewed journals. Dr. Li is a member of the Electrochemical Society and American Institute of Chemical Engineers. She is also accredited by Engineers Australia as a chartered professional engineer (CPEng), and Institute of Materials, Mineral and Mining as a chartered scientist (CSci). 

Lithium is not a normal cell constituent but, unlike any other known ion, it can replace sodium in facilitating nervous transmission although not efficiently. Also it is transported across isolated frog skin by the mechanism normally reserved for sodium (Schou, 1957). Its successful use in the treatment of chronic mania was initiated in Australia (Cade, 1949) and developed by Schou to the point where it has become the corner-stone of therapy for chronic mania. No lethargy accompanies its use. 

MBR in South Australia by injecting a pulse input of lithium chloride (LiCl) at the MBR inlet (post-screening) with the tracer response being measured in the permeate in order to validate CFD models that had been used to simulate the macro-mixing regimes of these two plants. The experimentally determined RTD prohles showed good agreement with the simulated RTDs (Fig. 15.11). 

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