Apollo Program

Alkaline fuel cells (AFCs). The electrolyte is 40 to 70% KOH, the working temperatures are 60 to 240°C. Such systems were used in the spacecraft of the Apollo program and in the U.S. space shuttle. 

Volatile metal chelates are also useful in determining isotope ratios of geological interest, e.g., the Zr/Hf ratio (197). This method proved invaluable as a microtechnique for chromium isotope analysis of lunar samples from the Apollo program (198). 

The AFC type was originally created for the Apollo program, after that a modernized version has been developed and is even now in use to provide electrical power for shuttle missions. The electrolyte in this fuel cell is KOH, concentrated (85 wt %) for fuel cells operated at relatively high temperatures, that is, around 250°C, and less concentrated (35-50 wt %) for cells operated at lower temperatures, that is, less than 120°C [6,9,11], In the construction of these fuel cells, the electrolyte is retained in a matrix, typically asbestos, and a wide range of catalysts, for example, Ni, Ag, metal oxides, and noble metals, can be used for both the hydrogen and the oxygen electrodes [8,9],... 

The first Lunar meteorite, found in 1981 in Antarctica, was immediately identified as such by. its fusion crust and mineralogic and chemical resemblance to samples returned by the Apollo program. The properties of the 31 Lunar meteorites are more characteristic of the whole Moon, because they are random samples, than are the Apollo samples which derive from Lunar sites mainly selected for landing safety reasons 10). 

SO that the gas pressure could be lowered significantly. These P W fuel cells were subsequently used in the Apollo program of space flights to the moon. 

Already in the 1960s fuel cell systems have been used in aerospace, especially as the need for electric power on board was rising and batteries could not cope with those requirements. That is why alkaline fuel cells have been used in the Gemini and Apollo program or latest in the space shuttle. 

Electrochemical Impedance Studies of AFC Cathodes. A review of the state of the art of alkaline fuel cell is given by McLean et al. [2002]. The electrolyte in AFC is a concentrated KOH solution, 25-50 wt% when operated at 120°C or below and in older AFC systems, operated at 250°C a 85 w/o KOH solution was used. The AFC was first fuel cell developed to technical maturity, based on the fundamental research of Bacon [1952] and has been employed extensively in the NASA space programs Apollo program (1960-1965) and space shuttle program (since 1981). 

From the 1950s to the mid-1970s, the development of FCs and RFCs was driven by the space exploration programs of the US National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). During the Gemini program, polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) were developed and used. In the Apollo program, AFCs were used and the focus was on rehable and reproducible stacks and systems [14]. 

Patent concerning the alkaline URFC (Apollo program) [26]... 

The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) asked PUlsbury Company food scientists to help them develop preserved foods that would not produce crumbs. Mercury, Gemini, and early Apollo program crews consumed foods contained in tubes. NASA arranged for Oregon Freeze Dry to use its freeze-drying technology to preserve more elaborate meals for astronauts to eat during later Apollo and space shuttle missions. 

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