Animated maps

MacEachren, A. M., and DiBiase, D. W. (1991). Animated maps of aggregate data conceptual and practical problems. Cartography and Geographic Information... 

Computer technology also makes it possible to create new types of cartographic visualizations such as animated maps. Maps that use a sequence of digital images are called temporal animations. This type of map is useful for representing changes over time, such as the movement of military fronts during a battle. 

Linxiang, W, Yueun, F., Ying, C., Animation of chaotic mixing by a backward Poincare cell-map method, Int. J. Bifurcation Chaos 11, 7 (2001) 1953-1960. 

In ocular applications, Raman spectroscopy can quickly and objectively assess composite lutein and zeaxanthin concentrations of macular pigment using spatially averaged, integral measurements or images that quantify and map the complete MP distribution with high spatial resolution. Importantly, both variants can be validated with HPLC methods in excised human eyecups and in animal models. 

Studies of sleep-active neuronal discharge across the sleep-wake cycle in freely moving animals provide important information about the hypnogenic process (see below) but, because of sampling limitations, are not suitable for systematic mapping of the exact locations of putative hypnogenic neurons. The application of the c-Fos immunoreactivity (IR) method to map sleep-active neurons has stimulated several advances. C-Fos IR is a marker of neuronal activation in most brain sites immunohistochemically labeled neurons can be mapped systematically. The localization of c-Fos IR following sustained sleep, but not... 

Once the "distances" between the animals have been calculated using equation (3.1), we lay the animals out on a piece of paper, so that those that share similar characteristics, as measured by the distance between them, are close together on the map, while those whose characteristics are very different are far apart. A typical result is shown in Figure 3.3. What we have done in this exercise is to squash down the many-dimensional vectors that represent the different features of the animals into two dimensions. 

In Figure 3.3, most of the animals that live in hot climates (lions, tigers, elephants, giraffes, wallabies, kangaroos) are close to each other on the map. This clustering of animals from warm environments has occurred even though the temperature of the environment in which the animals live is not a characteristic of the animals themselves, so it did not form part of the input data. 

The map can also be used as a predictive tool. If the details of another animal (a unicorn, perhaps) are fed in, this animal will find a place on the map near the animals that it most strongly resembles. By noting where the animal appears and taking into account what we know about animals in the same region of the map, we may be able to discover previously unknown information (for example, that unicorns prefer a temperate climate). 

Through a process of training, the weights evolve so that each node forms a prototypical blend of groups of input patterns. Just as with the clustering of animals, scientists of similar characteristics will be positioned close together on the map. 

The main pre-clinical species used for pharmacokinetic studies are the rat, mouse and dog. An examination of the Biosys database for 2000 and 2001 shows that of the abstracted papers, 6334 mapped to the subject heading Pharmacokinetics . Of these, the vast majority (70%) were studies on humans. Studies on rats constituted 14% of the reports, mice 7.5% and dogs 3.4% (Table 6.2). Nonhuman primates can also be important pharmacokinetic models, but ethical and practical considerations severely limit studies in these animals such that, within the same period, they represented less than 0.5% of the abstracted reports on PK. 

Tab. 6.2. Numbers of pharmacokinetic studies by animal. Numbers of papers abstracted into Biosys Previews and mapping to the Subject Heading Pharmacokinetics.

IAEA, GNIP (2001) Maps and animations. Accessible at http //isohis.iaea.org, International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna... 

Unlike other Eukarya, animal cells lack cell walls, though they tend to be surrounded by a highly developed glycocalyx of up to 140 nm in thickness [108]. This diffuse layer of densely packed oligosaccharides has a heterogeneous composition and is connected to the membrane via lipids or integral proteins. The boundary of the cell usually extends beyond the mere lipid bilayer with its embedded proteins, and the extracellular structures provide initial sites of interaction or are themselves targets for MAPs such as antimicrobial peptides [115]. 

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