Analytical techniques confocal laser scanning microscopy

Special emphasis is placed on the carbohydrate-mediated cell - target system interaction by describing hints and pitfalls of assays for cytoadhesion, specificity, cytoinvasion, and cytoevasion. In addition, basic considerations are presented to discriminate between active and passive uptake as well as to detect lysosomal accumulation. Finally, the pros and cons of two useful analytical techniques, namely, flow cytometry and confocal laser scanning microscopy, are described in detail. 

This review covers the formation, composition, structure, function and properties of the acquired pellicle. Specifically, the formation of pellicle is considered in terms of thermodynamic and kinetic aspects. The composition of the pellicle is reviewed in terms of the proteins, carbohydrates and lipids that have been identified using a range of analytical techniques. The ultrastructure of the pellicle is described in some detail from studies involving enamel slabs carried in the mouth, in which the subsequent pellicle was analysed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM). The function of the pellicle is outlined in terms of its lubrication properties, its ability to act as a semi-permeable membrane and its overall protection of the underlying enamel surfaces. Since pellicle is formed at the interface between the enamel surface and the oral environment, the important process of bacterial attachment to the pellicle surface is described and the specific bacterial binding sites found in the pellicle are summarised. The influence of diet and nutrition on the pellicle layer is considered. The formation of extrinsic stain is discussed in particular, the role that chlorhexidine... 

Several review papers discuss the preparation, characterization, properties, and applications of bio-nanocomposites (Pandey et al., 2005 Ray and Bousmina, 2005 Yang et al, 2007 Rhim and Ng, 2007 Sorrentino et al., 2007 Zhao et al., 2008 Bordes et al., 2009). However, there is a lack of comprehensive review on various analytical techniques for the stmctural characterization of bio-nanocomposites. Selection of proper technique for characterization of these bio-nanocomposites is very critical in assessing their performance. A number of analytical techniques have been used to characterize the stracture of bio-nanocomposites. These techniques include X-ray diffraction (XRD), microscopy transmission electron microscope (TEM), scanning electron microscope (SEM), scanning probe microscope (SPM), and confocal scanning laser microscope (CSLM), Fourier transform infra-red (FTIR) spectroscopy, and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). Each of the above mentioned techniques has its own benefits and limitations. 

Confocal scanning laser microscopy has been combined with the use of fluorescent stains to measure the distribution and concentration of specific analytes within biological tissue. Stains are used to bind selectively with the analyte under study, and the correct laser beam is selected to excite the stain used to give a fluorescent signal. The technique can also be... 

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