Aldehydes transition-state model

The data reported in Table 3 for the 2-butenylborations of 2-(dibenzylamino)propanal shed additional light on this transition state model. The ( )-2-butenylboration of 2-(dibenzyl-amino)propanal evidently proceeds preferentially (90%) by way of transition state 9, suggesting that the bulky dibenzylamino substituent destabilizes transition state 8 (X = NBn2 > CH3). On the other hand, the (Z)-2-butenylboration of 2-(dibenzylamino)propanal is relatively non-selective, compared to the excellent selectivity realized in the (Z)-allylborations of a-chloro- or x-alkoxy-substituted chiral aldehydes. This result suggests that an increase in the steric requirement of X destabilizes transition state 11 such that significantly greater amounts of product are obtained from transition state 10. 

A Zimmerman-Traxler transition state model is postulated in order to rationalize the ul topicity of this aldol addition [i.e., the (S)-enolate preferentially attacks the 7 e-face of the aldehyde]33. In the two alternative transition states 3a [ul topicity (S)jRe] and 3b [Ik topicity (S)/Si, the substituents at the stereogenic center of the enolatc are oriented in such a way that... 

The preference of the (5, .S )-boron cnolatc to attack almost exclusively the Si-face of an aldehyde is rationalized by assuming the Zimmerman-Traxler transition state model. It is postulated that the methyl group of the propyl residue directs the 3-elhylpenlane-3-thiol group towards the borolane moiety, the chirality of which is thus effectively transferred34. 

Corey reported a catalytic enantioselective cyanosilylation of methyl ketones using combination of a chiral oxazaborolidinium and an achiral phosphine oxide, [Eq. (13.23)]. An intermolecular dual activation of a substrate by boron and TMSCN by the achiral phosphine oxide (MePh2PO) is proposed as a transition-state model (54). The same catalyst was also used for cyanosilylation of aldehydes ... 

Most enolates can exist as two stereoisomers. Also, most aldol condensation products formed from a ketone enolate and an aldehyde can have two diastereomeric structures. These are designated as syn and anti. The cyclic-transition-state model provides a basis for understanding the relationship between enolate geometry and the stereochemistry of the aldol product. 

High anti-diastereoselectivity (95 5 dr) and enantioselectivity of the major isomer (99% ee) were obtained when utilizing the combination of (R,R)-catalyst and (S)-aldehyde. This stereochemical outcome (Scheme 6.169) was explained in terms of the Cram rule proposed transition-state model. The substituent on the aldehyde would be located in an onti-relationship to the nitronate. As the largest subshtuent (RJ should be in an anti position to the carbonyl group of the carbonyl substrate, the combination of (R,R)-catalyst 186 and (S)-substrate (TS 1) was favored rather than that of (S,S)-catalyst 183 and (S)-substrate (TS 2) because of the steric repulsion between Rs (smallest substituent) and nitronate (Scheme 6.170). 

Murakami and Taguchi utilized a diastereoselective Grignard addition to a substituted-chiral oxazoline aldehyde 524 (Scheme 8.170) in an improved stereoselective synthesis of D-n7 o-phytosphingosine. The good stereoselectivity observed for 525 can be rationalized by a Felkin-Ahn transition state model although a chelation control mechanism could not be mled out. 

Transition State Models. The stoichiometry of aldehyde, dialkylzinc, and the DAIB auxiliary strongly affects reactivity (Scheme 9) (3). Ethylation of benzaldehyde does not occur in toluene at 0°C without added amino alcohol however, addition of 100 mol % of DAIB to diethylzinc does not cause the reaction either. Only the presence of a small amount (a few percent) of the amino alcohol accelerates the organometallic reaction efficiently to give the alkylation product in high yield. Dialkyl-zincs, upon reaction with DAIB, eliminate alkanes to generate alkylzinc alkoxides, which are unable to alkylate aldehydes. Instead, the alkylzinc alkoxides act as excellent catalysts or, more correctly, catalyst dimers (as shown below) for reaction between dialkylzincs and aldehydes. The unique dependence of the reactivity on the stoichiometry indicates that two zinc atoms per aldehyde are responsible for the alkyl transfer reaction. 

Several studies have tackled the structure of the diketopiperazine 1 in the solid state by spectroscopic and computational methods [38, 41, 42]. De Vries et al. studied the conformation of the diketopiperazine 1 by NMR in a mixture of benzene and mandelonitrile, thus mimicking reaction conditions [43]. North et al. observed that the diketopiperazine 1 catalyzes the air oxidation of benzaldehyde to benzoic acid in the presence of light [44]. In the latter study oxidation catalysis was interpreted to arise via a His-aldehyde aminol intermediate, common to both hydrocyanation and oxidation catalysis. It seems that the preferred conformation of 1 in the solid state resembles that of 1 in homogeneous solution, i.e. the phenyl substituent of Phe is folded over the diketopiperazine ring (H, Scheme 6.4). Several transition state models have been proposed. To date, it seems that the proposal by Hua et al. [45], modified by North [2a] (J, Scheme 6.4) best combines all the experimentally determined features. In this model, catalysis is effected by a diketopiperazine dimer and depends on the proton-relay properties of histidine (imidazole). R -OH represents the alcohol functionality of either a product cyanohydrin molecule or other hydroxylic components/additives. The close proximity of both R1-OH and the substrate aldehyde R2-CHO accounts for the stereochemical induction exerted by RfOH, and thus effects the asymmetric autocatalysis mentioned earlier. 

Fig. 2.6 Proposed transition-state models for L-proline 3a (S)-2-[bis(3,5-bistrifluoro-methylphenyl)trimethylsilanyloxymethyl]pyrrolidine 3b-catalyzed a-amination of aldehydes.

The simple diastereoselectivity of aldol reactions was first studied in detail for the Ivanov reaction (Figure 13.45). The Ivanov reaction consists of the addition of a carboxylate enolate to an aldehyde. In the example of Figure 13.45, the diastereomer of the /1-hydroxycarboxylic acid product that is referred to as the and-diastereomer is formed in a threefold excess in comparison to the. vy/j-diastereoisomer. Zimmerman and Traxler suggested a transition state model to explain this selectivity, and their transition state model now is referred to as the Zimmer-man-Traxler model (Figure 13.46). This model has been applied ever since with good success to explain the simple diastereoselectivities of a great variety of aldol reactions. 

Evidence for a closed transition-state model was gathered on the basis of the diastereoselectivity in reactions of pentacoordinate allylic silicates. Bis(l,2-benzenediolato)allylsilicates la and lb, which can be prepared via the reactions of E- and Z-crotyltrichlorosilanes with dilithium catecholate, react with aromatic aldehydes to give the corresponding homoallylic alcohols 2 in high yields3 (Scheme 3.2a). Unlike allyltrimethylsilane,4 the allylation reactions of... 

Data for the primary kinetic isotope effect, corresponding to the replacement of the simple aldehyde or ketone by the fully tr-deuterated compound, are roughly in agreement with transition state models in which the proton is not far from being half-transferred. For example, the value observed [6.5 (Hine et al., 1972) 6.7 (Toullec and Dubois, 1974)] for fully dissociated acid-catalysed enolisation of acetone are close to the theoretical maximum value which can be calculated for half proton transfer. 

The observed absolute configuration of the products is in compliance with a simple transition state model where the phenyl group of the diox-ane moiety shields the Re face of the intermediate formed by addition of the nucleophilic carbene to the aldehyde, therefore, directing the attack of the enoate Michael acceptor to occur with the less hindered face, that is the Si face of the enamine (Fig. 16). The electrophilic part of the intermediate bearing the activated C=C double bond is approached by... 

The absolute stereochemical selectivities achieved in these reactions can be explained in terms of the nnf/-exo-transition-state models 16, 17, and 18, which are analogous to those previously proposed for the reaction of dienes and olefinic dienophiles (Fig. 8) [12,27d]. These transition-state models are based on three assumptions (i) the substituent in the chiral ligand blocks the same enantiofacial side of the carbonyl in the Diels-Alder reactions of acetylenic and olefinic aldehydes (ii) exo-transition structures predominate and (hi) anh-coordination of the bulky chiral Lewis acid to carbonyl is preferred in the transition state. 

To determine the aetivated faee of a carbonyl group in an acetylenic aldehyde-CAB 2 complex, an aldol reaction of acetylenic aldehydes with the trimethylsilyl enol ether derived from acetophenone was performed in the presence of 20 mol % 2 under conditions similar to those in the Diels-Alder reaction (Eq. 32). Good enantioselec-tivity was, with the predominant enantiomer corresponding to attack on the re face, as expected. Although it is essential to stress that the results of an aldol reaction cannot be directly used to explain the transition state in cycloaddition, the effective steric shielding of the si face of the coordinated aldehyde is consistent with cycloaddition via the proposed transition-state model 16. 

With the previous experiments and the derived transition state models as guidelines it was possible to select matched pairings of protected threose and erythrose aldehydes with the foregoing stannanes to prepare potential hexose precursors (Eq. 45) [65],... 

There is a dichotomy in the sense of syn-anti diastereofacial preference, dictated by the bulkiness of the migrating group [94]. The sterically demanding silyl group results in syn diastereofacial preference but the less demanding proton leads to anti preference (Sch. 35). The anti diastereoselectivity in carbonyl-ene reactions can be explained by the Felkin-Anh-like cyclic transition-state model (Ti) (Sch. 36). In the aldol reaction, by contrast, the now inside-crowded transition state (Ti ) is less favorable than Tg, because of steric repulsion between the trimethylsilyl group and the inside methyl group of aldehyde (Ti ). The syn-diastereofacial selectivity is, therefore, visualized in terms of the anti-Felkin-like cyclic transition-state model (T2 )-... 

Reactions of chiral allenes proceed with a preference for the formation of the syn diastereomer. The stereochemical outcome of these reactions can be rationalized by invoking an open transition state model for the addition reactions (Figure 12), which depicts an antiperiplanar orientation of the chiral allenylsi-lane to the aldehyde carbonyl. In this model, steric repulsion between the allenyl methyl and the aldehyde substituent is most likely responsible for the destabilization of transition state (B), which leads to the anti (minor) stereoisomer. This destabilizing interaction is minimized in transition state (A). Table 5 illustrates representative examples and summarizes the scope of the regiocontrolled synthesis of homopropargylic alcohols using allenylsilanes. 

The transfer of the allylic moieties from boron to the electrophilic carbonyl carbon proceeds via rearrangement to form intermediate boronic esters C and D (see below). The reaction is highly diastereoselective. The ( )-crotylboronate reacts to give the anfr-homoallylic alcohol and the (Z)-crotylboronate reacts to afford the syn-homoallylic alcohol.This behavior has been interpreted in terms of the Zimmerman-Traxler chair-type transition state model.Because of the double bond geometry, coordination of the (Ei-crotylboronic ester places the Me preferentially equatorial, whereas coordination of the (Z)-crotylboronic ester places the Me axial, as illustrated in the cyclohexane chair-form transition state conformations A and B, respectively. In both cases, the R moiety of the aldehyde must occupy a pseudo-equatorial position to avoid steric repulsion by one of the OR substituents on boron. 

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