Water-supply systems copper pipes

Rabin (2008) relates how old municipal water systems used lead pipes to dehver water to homes. This was recognized as a public health threat in the 1800s, and in the early part of the twentieth century municipalities began to prohibit lead service lines. This movement was countered by the Lead Industry Association (LIA), which began a public campaign to commend the benefits of using lead pipes. Problems remain to this day, as the federal Lead and Copper Rule (LCR) requires water companies to initiate lead water pipe replacement when lead levels in water exceed 15 parts per billion (ppb). But the LCR allows water utilities to replace only the public portion of lead pipes. The private portion of these pipes, from the main service line to a house, can be left in place. Renner (2007) describes that when partial replacement is undertaken, that disturbance results in a rise in lead levels in water. Millions of homes in the U.S. have lead service lines as part of their water supply systems (McCartney 2010). 

Zhang et al. (2009) observed that nitrification increased lead levels in potable water by reducing pH. They further observed that 45 % more lead was released from leaded brass fixtures connected to PVC pipes as compared with copper pipes. Residents of homes in which PVC piping is used in the supply lines of the plumbing system should be advised to flush their water line in the same manner that is prescribed for copper systems with tin-lead solder. 

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