Transportation pricing

Harvey, G. (1994). Transportation Pricing and Travel Behavior. In Curbing Gridlock Peak Period Fees to Relieve Traffic Congestion, Vol. 2. Washington, DC National Academy Press. 

Lastly, damage associated with this pollution is a cause of social costs which are born by the community and which are not taken into account in the benefit provided by a car trip. These costs, described as "external", are not included in the transportation prices, a factor which causes imbalances and a non-optimal distribution of resources. Their extent is undisputed but, in many cases, has still to be quantified. A number of initiatives are looking into this. 

Transportation Pricing. A few words should be said on this subject which could cover a book in itself. 

As a rule, the initial stage of petroleum extraction from oil wells occurs under the natural layer pressure practically without contamination with water. With time, however, the water layer gets produced together with the petroleum layer. About two-thirds of all petroleum is extracted in high humidity conditions. Water layers can differ considerably by their chemical and bacteriological contents. During the extraction of this mixture of petroleum with water layer, an emulsion is formed. Emulsions can be considered to be a physical mixture of two immiscible liquids, one of which is distributed in another phase as droplets of various sizes. The water present in petroleum results in an increase in the transportation price because of an increase in both volume and viscosity of the resulting liquid to be transported. 

Cain, A. and MacAulay, A. 2004. Road Pricing The way forward (Edinburgh) . Transport Pricing Conference. EU. http //www.transport-pricing.net/confppts/3B EDINB.PPT. Accessed 23 January 2012. 

Jones, P.M. 2003. Acceptability of transport pricing strategies Meeting the challenge. In J. Schade and B. Schlag (eds.). Acceptability of Transport Pricing Strategies. Oxford Elsevier Science, pp. 235-248. 

Schade, J. and Schlag, B. 2003. Acceptability of urban transport pricing strategies. Transportation Research Part F, 6(1), 45-61. 

Ubbels, B. and Verhoef, E. 2007. The economics of transport pricing. In T. Garhng and L. Steg (Eds.), Threats to the Quality of Life from Car Traffic Problems, Causes, and Solutions. Amsterdam Elsevier, pp. 325-345. 

Two different types of transportation services are assumed to be available, lorries in two different sizes (16 and 32 ton). Benzene is a chemical that is liquid at standard conditions and therefore is stored and transported as a liquid. Butane, on the other hand, is a gas at standard conditions and therefore needs to be liquefied in order to be transported and stored. In this case butane liquefaction has been considered during its production, and consequently both products are transported in liquid state, with similar environmental impacts by the same kg km. Medium voltage electricity production from different countries grid is considered. Environmental impacts associated with transportation services and electricity production are found in Table 6.4. Transportation prices were estimated from current economical trends, see Table6.5. Return rate is assumed to be 25 %. 

---