Toxicity of chromium

The toxicity of chromium and inorganic chromium compounds Bis (chloromethylj ether... 

Data on toxicity of chromium to terrestrial invertebrates are sparse. Studies conducted in India showed that a concentration of 10 to 15 mg/L of CrM in irrigation water, when applied to soils for agricultural purposes, was lethal to two species of earthworms in 58 to 60 days (Soni and Abbasi 1981 Abbasi and Soni 1983). 

Holdway, D.A. 1988. The toxicity of chromium to fish. Pages 369-397 in J.O. Nriagu and E. Nieboer (eds.). Chromium in the Natural and Human Environments. John Wiley, NY. 

McLusky, D.S. and L. Hagerman. 1987. The toxicity of chromium, nickel and zinc effects of salinity and temperature, and the osmoregulatory consequences in the mysid Praunus flexuosus. Aquat. Toxicol. 10 225-238. 

Ahsanullah, M. 1982. Acute toxicity of chromium, mercury, molybdenum and nickel to the amphipod Allorchestes compressa. Austral. Jour. Mar. Freshwater Res. 33 465-474. 

Vincent, J.B. (2003) The potential value and potential toxicity of chromium picolinate as a nutritional supplement, weight-loss agent and muscle development agent, Sports Med., 33, 213-230. Vincent, J.B. (2004) Recent advances in the nutritional biochemistry of trivalent chromium, Proc. Nutr. Soc., 63, 41-47. 

Moraitou-Apostolopoulou, M. and G. Verriopoulos. 1982a. Individual and combined toxicity of three heavy metals, Cu, Cd and Cr for the marine copepod Tisbe holothuriae. Hydrobiologia 87 83-87. Moraitou-Apostolopoulou, M. and G. Verriopoulos. 1982b. Toxicity of chromium to the marine planktonic copepod Acartia clausi, Giesbrecht. Hydrobiologia 96 121-127. 

Bray, D.J., Toxicity of chromium compounds formed in refractories , Bull. Amer. Ceram. Soc., 1985 64(7) 1012-16. 

Riedel, GF. (1984) The influence of salinity and sulfate on the toxicity of chromium (VI) to the estuarine diatom Thalassiosira pseudonana. J. Phycol. 20, 496-500. 

The toxicity of chromium is dependent on the oxidation state of the chromium atom, with chromium(VI) being significantly more toxic than chromium(III). One of the factors believed to contribute to this increased toxicity is the greater ability of chromium(VI) to enter cells, compared to chromium(III). Chromium(VI) exists as the tetrahedral chromate anion at physiological pH, and resembles the forms of other natural anions, such as sulfate and phosphate, which are permeable across nonselective membrane channels. Chromium(III), however, forms octahedral complexes and cannot easily enter through these channels. Therefore, the lower toxicity to chromium(III) may be due in part to lack of penetration through cell membranes. It follows that extracellular reduction of chromium(VI) to chromium(III) may result in a decreased penetration of chromium into cells, and therefore, a decreased toxicity. 

Anderson RA, Bryden NA, Polansky MM. 1997b. Lack of toxicity of chromium chloride and chromium picolinate in rats. J Am Coll Nutr 16(3) 273-279. 

Fairhurst S, Minty CA. 1989. The toxicity of chromium and inorganic chromium compounds. Health and Safety Executive Review. Toxicity Review 21. London Her Majesty s Stationery Office. 

Hilaski R, Katz S, Salem H. 1992. Inhalation toxicity of chromium from Whetlerite dust in rats. 

Lee KP, Ulrich CE, Geil RG, et al. 1989. Inhalation toxicity of chromium dioxide dust to rats after two years exposure. Sci Total Environ 86 83-108. 

The toxicity of chromium salts and carbonyls confers some urgency upon the search for catalytic protocols or stoichiometric processes based on less toxic metals. 

Chromium may cause adverse health effects following inhalation, ingestion, or dermal exposure. The toxicity of chromium is mainly caused by hexavalent compounds as a result of a higher cellular uptake of chromium(VI) compounds than chromium(III). This is explained by the fact that the chromate anion (Cr04) can enter the cells via facilitated diffusion through nonspecific anion channels (similarly to phosphate and sulfate anions). Absorption of chro-mium(III) compounds is via passive diffusion and phagocytosis. 

Vincent JB. The potential value and toxicity of chromium picolinate as a nutritional supplement, weight loss agent and muscle development agent. Sports Med 2003 33 213-30. 

Because of the toxicity of chromium-based reagents, other methods for the oxidation of alcohols have been developed. One of the most widely employed methods, called the Swem oxidation, uses dimethyl sulfoxide [(CH3)2SO], oxalyl chloride [(COCl)2], and triethylamine. Since the reaction is not carried out in an... 

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