Topography, definition

Arid and semi-arid zones may be defined in several ways, but the climatic is the one most commonly accepted. According to that definition, aridity represents a lack of moisture in average climatic conditions (UNEP, 1993). This situation may be caused by one of four climatic conditions, which may interact in the case of specific arid/semi-arid zones continentality, topography, anticyclonic subsidence and oceanic cold currents. 

It has been emphasized that STM is sensitive to topography convoluted with the electronic density of states. Spectroscopic characterization of surface states by STM is a challening field of research to be intensified for a better understanding of the chemical reactivity of interfaces. There are still fundamental effects which could be clarified definitively by direct observation. The characterization of transport properties, as demonstrated in Sec. 6, is complementary to STM and STS, and the combination of several techniques should provide a comprehensive description of charge transfer at electrodes. 

Figure 3.42. Definition of new parameter the dihedral angle between the backbone atoms ( j-d, - ( -N( of peptides, used to describe the topography of reverse turns (434,435).

Figure 2.17. Sketch of a friction force microscope (FFM) with a beam-deflection detection scheme. Cantilever movements are monitored by a laser beam with a four-quadrant photodiode. The topography (T) is measured simultaneously with the lateral forces (L). Irreversible lateral forces are by definition frictional forces. (From Ovemey, 1995.)...

This broad definition accommodates numerous variations in soil composition. The National Cooperative Soil Survey identifies more than 20,000 different kinds of soil in the United States alone)2 Soil formation is a dynamic, ongoing process dependent upon climate (wind, water availability temperature), topography, time, and biological activity of plants, animals, and microorganisms. 

The definite identification and general classification of all inflow events regardless of their effects on the various deep basins can be done by the salinity conditions in the entrance sill area (Wyrtki, 1954 Wolf, 1972 Matthaus and Franck, 1992). Another occasionally used characterization of the inflow events is based on their effects on the hydrographic and chemical conditions in the central Baltic deep water (cf. e.g., Kalle, 1943 Fonselius, 1969 Nehring, 1990). The latter method has a certain drawback because the effects depend not only on the intensity of the inflows but also on the bottom topography, the density of the bottom water, and the buffering capacity of various deep basins. 

Then, for the reasons explained in the paper by Rudziriski et al. [21] we accept the random model of surface topography considering the fundamental physical question of whether the variables C are totally independent. In other words, whether the value of is correlated in a way with (i,j=0.- -,A,C) on passing from one to another site. These two models represent somewhat extreme views, and the truth probably lies somewhere in between. It is still too early to provide a definite answer for the fundamental question of which one of these two models is closer to reality. 

A completely different approach of surface parameters is based on topography of peaks and valleys. Definitions are given in ISO 12085 (1996). 

For a working definition of molecular structure, we have adopted the one given by Eliel The structure of a molecule is completely defined by the number and kind of atoms and the linkages between them . We have applied the term molecular topography to the three-dimensional arrangement of the atoms in a particular conformation the term configuration is also used. The term molecular topology refers to the set of atoms and connections within the molecular skeleton, that is, the molecular structure as defined by Eliel. 

The second risk metric that is being considered by policymakers is individual risk. Individual risk is defined as the probability of death of an average, improtected person that is constantly present at a certain location (note that evacuation could be included in an alternative definition). As levels of individual risk are highly dependent on local flood conditions and topography, it is troublesome to estimate individual risks throughout low-lying regions, without detailed information from flood scenario calculations available. No nationwide estimates are therefore presented for individual risk. 

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