The reciprocity principle

Some sociologists, anthropologists, and moral philosophers consider reciprocity a universal norm that motivates a good deal of interpersonal behavior (Cialdini, 1993 Gouldner, 1960). Simply put, people are expected to help those who have helped them. You can expect people to comply with your request if you have done a favor for them. This is the principle behind Covey s (1989) claim that we need to make deposits in another person s emotional bank account before making a withdrawal. 

In a similar vein, my father-in-law had a favorite expression whenever someone offered to do him a favor. He would say, I don t want to be obligated. Witiiout knowing the principle, he was saying that he did not want the favor because he would feel a duty to reciprocate. 

Have you ever felt a little xmcomfortable after someone did you a favor I certainly have. I interpret my discomfort as the reciprocity principle in action. Another person s kind act makes me feel pressured to respond in kind. What does this mean for safety I think it means we should look for opportunities to go out of our way for another person s safety. Doing this, we increase the likelihood they will help when we need them. 

The workplace setting might enhance chances for reciprocity. Research shows tiiat people are most likely to pay back individuals they expect to see again (Camevale et al., 1982). Also, the more actively caring behavior one receives, the more such behavior they feel obligated to return (Kahn and Tice, 1973). So, when we actively care frequently for the safety of coworkers we see often, we will obligate them to return in kind. This actually has far-reaching benefits. 

Suppose you do the right thing for a coworker s safety, but you are not available to receive his or her reciprocal act of caring. Will that person be more likely to act on behalf of another individual Yes, according to informative research by Berkowitz and Daniels (1964). Subjects in one experimental group received favors, while other subjects did not. Later, the person who did the favor was unavailable, but another individual (a research accomplice) was in apparent need of help. Subjects who had received the earlier favor were significantly more likely to assist than those who had not. 

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Incorrect conclusion 1 above is sometimes said to derive from the reciprocity principle, which states that light waves in any optical system all could be reversed in direction without altering any paths or intensities and remain consistent with physical reality (because Maxwell s equations are invariant under time reversal). Applying this principle here, one notes that an evanescent wave set up by a supercritical ray undergoing total internal reflection can excite a dipole with a power that decays exponentially with z. Then (by the reciprocity principle) an excited dipole should lead to a supercritical emitted beam intensity that also decays exponentially with z. Although this prediction would be true if the fluorophore were a fixed-amplitude dipole in both cases, it cannot be modeled as such in the latter case. 

In the bare glass case, note that the decay is not exponential, as otherwise would be expected if the reciprocity principle had been misapplied here. Nevertheless, by viewing only supercritical angles, one can selectively observe only those fluorophores within several hundred nanometers of the surface, even if the excitation (rather than the emission) is not surface-selective at all. 

FIG. 7. The importance of the tip state is highlighted by applying the reciprocity principle to imaging a free electron metal surface with a d/ tip. (From Ref. 39.)... 

The effect of p,- or dangling bonds on STM resolution can be understood in the light of the reciprocity principle (Chen, 1988), which is the fundamental microscopic symmetry between the tip and the sample By... 

Fig. 1.30. Origin of atomic resolution on metal surfaces. According to the reciprocity principle, the image taken with a d,- tip state (which exists on a W tip) on a free-electron-metal surface is equivalent to an image taken with a point tip on a fictitious sample surface with a d state on each top-layer atom, which obviously has a strong corrugation. (Reproduced from Chen, 1990, with permission.)...

As we have discussed in Chapter 2, a direct consequence of the Bardeen tunneling theory (or the extension of it) is the reciprocity principle If the electronic state of the tip and the sample state under observation are interchanged, the image should be the same. An alternative wording of the same... 

Naturally, we observed the reciprocity principle. By interchanging the tip state and the sample state, the conductance distribution, and consequently, the apparent radius of the image, are unchanged. 

In order to generally categorize the reaction schemes mentioned previously and the following ones in the course of indirect enantioseparation techniques, it has to be emphasized again, that the reciprocity principle should always be applicable. This means that if a chiral acid as the CDA can be used successfully to resolve the enantiomers of a chiral amine, then this optically pure amine as the CDA will equally well separate the enantiomers of the acid by the indirect method. The OPA reaction (see Figure 4) is therefore equally well suited for analyzing the optical purity of thiols, amines or amino acids. 

Saunders, D. and Kirby, J. (1996) light-induced damage investigating the reciprocity principle. Preprints of the 11th Triennial Meeting of the International Committee for Conservation ICOM-CC, Edinburgh, Vol. 1, pp. 87-90. 

We can give a simple, but important physical interpretation of the expressions for sensitivities, (9.55), based on the reciprocity principle. Note that, according to definition (see Chapter 8), the Green s tensors (r r") and Gh (r r"), are the electric and magnetic fields at the receiver point, r, due to a unit electric dipole source at the point r" of the conductivity perturbation. Let us introduce a Cartesian system of coordinates x,y,z, and rewrite these tensors in matrix form ... 

We can reduce significantly the number of the required iterations using the reciprocity principle (Madden, 1972 Rodi, 1976 Madden and Mackie, 1989 McGillivray and Oldenburg, 1990 de Lugao and Wannamaker, 1996 and de Lugao et ah, 1997) for Frechet derivative calculations. Due to reciprocity, the field is equal to the... 

The reciprocity principle plays an important role in the theory of wavefield propagation and in the inversion of wavefield data. It is based on an application of the integral formula (14.17) to two Green s functions, G (r" r ti ) and G " (r lriw), satisfying the... 

To date, BWFs have been developed for a variety of aquatic organisms ranging from marine phytoplankton [89-91], to marine copepods and fish [92,93], freshwater copepods [94], and freshwater cladocerans [95]. The application of BWFs is dependent upon the reciprocity principle, which states that the effect of a given dose is independent of the rate at which the dose is administered [89,96]. In essence, the reciprocity principle is not valid if a high dose rate administered over a short period of time gives a different response than a low dose rate of the same total dose administered over a longer time period. 

The validity of the TPI model has been demonstrated in many stereoselective systems. In chromatography, this model is the basis of the reciprocity principle which Pirkle and his co-workers extensively utilized in the rational design of... 

Minnaert, M. (1941). The reciprocity principle in lunar photometry. Astrophysical Journal, 93,403-10. 

The Marfey s-derivatives of d- and L-amino acids can be identified by coinjection of standard derivatized d- and L-amino acids the reciprocity principle of chromatography makes it possible, using both enantioisomeric reagents, to determine the opposite stereoisomer s retention time without measuring for the corresponding authentic sample. 

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