States or levels

In various applications the following model has been used, which is of more general interest. Consider a molecule having a number of internal states or levels i. From each i it can jump to any other level j with a fixed transition probability yjti per unit time. Moreover the molecule is embedded in a solvent in which it diffuses with a diffusion constant depending on its state i. The probability at time t for finding it in level i at the position r with margin d3r is P,(i% t) d3r. While the molecule resides in i the probability obeys... 

Inner shell absorption spectroscopy provides a map of unoccupied electronic states (or levels) and the electronic structures of conduction bands in the vicinity of the core-excited atom. The X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) represents a fingerprint of the chemical state of the element. It provides useful means of nondestructive site-dependent chemical analysis of complex systems. Ultra-soft X-ray absorption (USXA) method is categorically interesting for chemical analysis of a variety of complex materials in battery industry, environmental science, and semiconductor industry. 

One of the states is taken as reference and the variation of the response is described with respect to that state or level. Taking for example A as reference the model may be written as ... 

These are factors whose different levels can take numerical values within a well-defined domain of variation representing the domain of variation of the factor consido ed. It is theoretically possible to choose in this domain any state (or level) for the factor. Although it often occurs that only a few discrete values can be chosen in this domain of variation, we generally consider that a quantitative factor is also a continuous factor. Examples are temperature of reaction, duration of addition, concentration of a reactant, and ccrniposition of an emulsion. 

These are factors whose different states (or levels) cannot be arranged in ascending or descending order. By definition, these factors can take only di.screte values. A qualitative factor is always disccmtinuous. Examples are nature of an excipient, type of machine, and nature of an emulsion. 

For any system, the canonical partition function Q N,V, ) in terms of state or level is... 

Temperature is the property that expresses the energy state or level of inner energy of the molecules of a substance. It is intuitively associated with the feeling of hot or cold of an object (Fig. 2.2). 

The total active energy flux of the heart over a given time interval is influenced primarily by four factors (1) heart rate, (2) the initial length or end-diastolic volume (EDV) of the heart, (3) the inotropic state or level of contractility and (4) the mechanical conditions under which the contraction occurs. For a given set of physiological conditions where factors (1), (2), and (3) are kept constant the... 

A combination of vibratimial and electronic wavefunctions and 0,- is referred to as a vibronic state or level. Consider a transitiOTi from a particular vibronic level of the ground electronic state, Pa,n = vibronic level of an... 

In all conductors, semiconductors, and many insulating materials, only electronic conduction exists, and the magnitude of the electrical conductivity is strongly dependent on the number of electrons available to participate in the conduction process. However, not all electrons in every atom accelerate in the presence of an electric field. The number of electrons available for electrical conduction in a particular material is related to the arrangement of electron states or levels with respect to energy and the manner in which these states are occupied by electrons. A thorough exploration of these topics is complicated and involves principles of quantum mechanics that are beyond the scope of this book the ensuing development omits some concepts and simplifies others. 

A Cd biomarker is any substance or molecule that can serve as an indicator of the functional state or level of toxic injury in an organism, organ, tissue or cell [190]. Practically, sampling of Cd biomarkers should be easy and without expensive, invasive or damaging procedures because it should be apphed to large populations. Measurements should be limited to urine (and/or blood) samples because the kidney is the sentinel of Cd toxicity [190] (see Section 4.3.1). For the above reasons a recent suggestion to measure renal autophagy as an early biomarker of subtoxic Cd exposure is not practical [412]. 

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