Science, definition

Publications in plant systematica sometimes are built according to the stereotypical pattern in natural sciences definition of the problem - material and methods - results of observations and/or experiments - discussion. In many cases, however, the results of the systematic research are presented differently, viz. as a survey of a part of the system of classification. The degree of elaboration of the survey and the scope of the research (geographically and taxonomical-ly) may differ widely. The diagram in fig. 5 gives a diagram of the different types of classifying publications. 

Europa Science Definition Team (1998). Report of the Europa Science Definition Team. NASA. 

Many people in the general public (and even in science and engineering) do not appreciate the fundamental differences between science activities and engineering activities. The standard definitions of science are usually somewhat along the following lines (http //www.sciencemadesimple.com/science-definition.html) ... 

For tire purjDoses of tliis review, a nanocrystal is defined as a crystalline solid, witli feature sizes less tlian 50 nm, recovered as a purified powder from a chemical syntliesis and subsequently dissolved as isolated particles in an appropriate solvent. In many ways, tliis definition shares many features witli tliat of colloids , defined broadly as a particle tliat has some linear dimension between 1 and 1000 nm [1] tire study of nanocrystals may be drought of as a new kind of colloid science [2]. Much of die early work on colloidal metal and semiconductor particles stemmed from die photophysics and applications to electrochemistry. (See, for example, die excellent review by Henglein [3].) However, the definition of a colloid does not include any specification of die internal stmcture of die particle. Therein lies die cmcial distinction in nanocrystals, die interior crystalline stmcture is of overwhelming importance. Nanocrystals must tmly be little solids (figure C2.17.1), widi internal stmctures equivalent (or nearly equivalent) to drat of bulk materials. This is a necessary condition if size-dependent studies of nanometre-sized objects are to offer any insight into die behaviour of bulk solids. 

The definition above is a particularly restrictive description of a nanocrystal, and necessarily limits die focus of diis brief review to studies of nanocrystals which are of relevance to chemical physics. Many nanoparticles, particularly oxides, prepared dirough die sol-gel niediod are not included in diis discussion as dieir internal stmcture is amorjihous and hydrated. Neverdieless, diey are important nanoniaterials several textbooks deal widi dieir syndiesis and properties [4, 5]. The material science community has also contributed to die general area of nanocrystals however, for most of dieir applications it is not necessary to prepare fully isolated nanocrystals widi well defined surface chemistry. A good discussion of die goals and progress can be found in references [6, 7, 8 and 9]. Finally, diere is a rich history in gas-phase chemical physics of die study of clusters and size-dependent evaluations of dieir behaviour. This topic is not addressed here, but covered instead in chapter C1.1, Clusters and nanoscale stmctures, in diis same volume. 

Carhart R E, D H Smith and R Venkataraghavan 1985. Atom Pairs as Molecular Features in Structure Activity Studies Definition and Applications. Journal of Chemical Information and Computer Scienc 25 64-73. 

The following are definitions of terms relevant to computational chemistry. These definitions are based on common usage in this field. They do not necessarily reflect the dictionary definitions or those in other branches of science. 

A patent is intended to further the development of science and technology by providing a pubHshed record of technological developments for all to read, consider, and discuss. At the same time, a patent provides a delineation or definition of the rights which the patent owner considers its own through the claims appended to the patent. The pubHcation of a description of the invention in conjunction with the claimed limits of the invention provides the pubHc with notice of the patent owner s affirmative rights to the invention. 

Whereas the foregoing ate the forms most commonly found in many appHcations in industry, there ate definitions that ate necessary not only for industrial purposes but also for consistency in the study of carbon science. Since 1975, the International Committee for Characterization and Terminology of Carbon has been working to estabUsh definitions and in 1982 pubHshed its 30 tentative definitions followed by periodic issues of further tentative definitions (10). 

The term composite materialis used to describe macroscopic combiaations of two or more materials. Macroscopic combiaations are specified to exclude alloys that consist of materials combined on a microscopic scale (1). Such an exclusive definition of composite materials is not universal, but it is commonly accepted and it helps restrict to a manageable size an introductory treatment of the science and technology of composite materials. 

Family of the scientist has presented documentar y materials to Academy of sciences in June 1974. Among them, the most important ar e manuscripts, typewritten copies about 100 scientific works of the scientist and working materials to them. Its includes articles, reports, monographs, the textbooks written by A.K. Babko during last 25 year s working writing-books with extracts, marks on various questions, abstracts of chemical literature responses and reviews on thesis of Ph.D. and doctor s degrees, on ar ticles, books, textbooks. For example, early works Product of solubility , To a technique of definition of strontium in minerals (1940-s), many unpublished works in 1940-1960, etc. 

The present author was worried about the lack of knowledge concerning the quality of the kinetic models used in the industry. A model is by definition a small, scaled-down imitation of the real thing. (Men should remember tliis when their mothers-in-law call them model husbands.) In the industry all we require from a kinetic model is that it describe the chemical rate adequately by using traditional mathematical forms (Airhenius law, power law expressions and combinations of these) within the limits of its applications. Neither should it rudely violate the known laws of science. 

This entire book is about the emergence, nature and cultivation of a new discipline, materials science and engineering. To draw together the strings of this story, it helps to be clear about what a scientific discipline actually is that, in turn, becomes clearer if one looks at the emergence of some earlier disciplines which have had more time to reach a condition of maturity. Comparisons can help in definition we can narrow a vague concept by examining what apparently diverse examples have in common. 

Electro-osmosis has been defined in the literature in many indirect ways, but the simplest definition comes from the Oxford English Dictionary, which defines it as the effect of an external electric held on a system undergoing osmosis or reverse osmosis. Electro-osmosis is not a well-understood phenomenon, and this especially apphes to polar non-ionic solutions. Recent hterature and many standard text and reference books present a rather confused picture, and some imply directly or indirectly that it cannot take place in uniform electric fields [31-35]. This assumption is perhaps based on the fact that the interaction of an external electric held on a polar molecule can produce only a net torque, but no net force. This therefore appears to be an ideal problem for molecular simulation to address, and we will describe here how molecular simulation has helped to understand this phenomenon [26]. Electro-osmosis has many important applications in both the hfe and physical sciences, including processes as diverse as water desahnation, soil purification, and drug delivery. 

---