Resource extraction reduction

However, the use of nanoparticles in nanocomposites may also have less desirable side effects. For instance, thermo-oxidative stability may be reduced, which may have negative consequences for performance and service time [13,14]. Furthermore, polymer degradation under solar irradiation may be increased, and hazardous nanoparticles may be released during their life cycle (which starts with resource extraction and ends with final disposal) [15,16]. The release of engineered nanoparticles from nanocomposites and the scope for reduction of hazard and risk to health during the nanocomposite life cycle are considered in this chapter. This chapter also deals with other environmental aspects of... 

Coal combustion provides a substantial fraction of world energy production, both thermal and electrical. In addition, coal and its semi-processed derivative, coke, are cheap chemical reductants essential to the extraction of a variety of metals from their ores (e.g., Fe, Mn, Cu). The market for coal is likely to increase over the next decade only slowly in developed countries but more rapidly in developing countries with suitable domestic resources (e.g., China, India). 

Metals are important resources and have a wide range of applications. Metals are often extracted from ores. Once the ore is mined, the metals must be extracted, usually by chemical or electrolytic reduction. Pyrometallurgy uses high temperatures to convert ore into raw metals, while hydrometalluigy employs aqueous chemistry for the same purpose. The methods used depend on the metal and their contaminants. Most metals are obtained by hydrometallurgical processes such as aqueous acids or alkalis are predominantly used to dissolve the metal oxides, sulfides, or silicates. Electrowinning and solvent extraction are frequently used to recover and concentrate the metals. A limited number of high-temperature molten salts have also been used for the recovery of refractory metals, such as titanium and aluminum, from their ores... 

The potential use of agro-polymers in the plastics industry has long been recognized. Agro-polymers are extracted from either plants or animals. They could contribute to a reduction of dependence on fossil resources as agricultural resources are generally sustainable. Some of the polymers in this family... 

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