Redistribution of income

However, these results are not applicable to compulsory pubhc insurance, nor to National Health Systems. The most notable differences between drag co-payment in an insurance market and in a National Health System or compulsory public insurance environment lie in their voluntariness or otherwise (users ability to choose their coverage) and the ultimate financing of the services (risk-adjusted premiums as opposed to taxes or social insurance contributions adjusted according to economic capacity). Hence, in compulsory public insurance systems, co-payment regulation is used not only as a health policy instrument but also as one of redistribution of income. 

A social cost-benefit analysis gives information on the profit of a project and further on the influence of the project on employment, production, consumption, savings, trade balance, redistribution of income etc. Here the Guidelines for project evaluation of the Unido [9] are used. Both the investment and operating costs of a project have to be divided into... 

While changes in the money income and changes in the price-level are often linked together the income effect on demand is still neglected in the analysis of inflation. It is frequently assumed that the redistribution of income, even if it occurs, cancels out in the aggregate and therefore has no relevance to macroeconomic analysis. The purpose of our analysis in this chapter is to show that a systematic - as distinct from a random - income redistribution does lead to a systematic shift in demand patterns. Demand for a specific commodity (or group of commodities) can either rise or fall with the general price level. 

Lubell, H. 1947, "Effects of Redistribution of Income on Consumers Expenditures", A.E.R. 37, March. Modigliani, F, 1977. The monetarist controversy or should we forsake stabilization policies", A.E.R. March. 

Possible actions could involve attempts to prevent atmospheric changes through limiting emissions. Strict economists favor doing nothing active now, assuming that resources will be used to maximize economic conditions in the future and solutions will eventually develop. Strict environmentalists favor a redistribution of resources to modify costs and incomes. 

In this light, the reduction in the percentages of reimbursement levels B and C will allow for a redistribution of resources and create the conditions for an increase in the reimbursements for people with lower incomes and at risk of a higher level of drugs consumption. 

Berzelius (who must have overlooked the chlorination of benzaldehyde and Gay-Lussac s experiments with HCN and CICN) could not accept this. By Berzelius doctrine, electropositive hydrogen could never yield its place to electronegative chlorine they were too different. Such a substitution would lead to the most fundamental redistribution of atoms in the molecule. Dumas often could find little difference between chlorinated and un-chloiinated material, but he bowed before Berzelius, and insisted that he had only expressed a relation between incoming and outgoing chemicals. 

Antioxidants are often confused with UV stabilizers, but they are not UV deactivators as such. However, their decomposition by-products can degrade the electromagnetic energy of incoming light and redistribute it as thermal dissipation in the polymer without formation of free radicals, which is a mechanism comparable to that of UV absorbers such as benzotriazoles and benzophenones. 

Chapter 14 introduces the atmosphere and atmospheric chemistry, including the key concept of photochemistry. It discusses stratification of the atmosphere. Earth s crucial energy balance between incoming solar energy and outgoing infrared energy, and weather and climate as they are driven by redistribution of energy and water in... 

Other proofs of income redistribution during inflation we leave to statistics. 

That new rise in the price level starts the whole process of income redistribution once again with all its consequences and thus leads to a new additional rise in prices. We thus have a dynamic process of continuing income redistribution, demand shift and inflation. 

We have seen that the effect of income redistribution in creating a demand shift is not quite clear before prices reach the price level pQ. Up to that price level the losers move out... 

We should separate equity issues from efficiency issues. Poor people do not buy certain items because they have insufficient income, not because markets fail. Rather than modifying markets to ameliorate equity concerns, informed policy analysts generally prefer a variety of redistributive policies. All of those policies use... 

The failure of poor people to purchase risk information or risk-reduction services is not evidence that information and risk-reduction markets do not work well. Poor people do not consume certain items because they do not have sufficient income, not because markets do not work well. Economically informed policy analysis argues that the state should not intervene in the interactions of particular markets to ameliorate equity concerns. If any redistribution occurs, it should be at the level of the economy as a whole and not in any particular market. 

There are six neoclassical roles of government (Wade 1990). Government should first, maintain macroeconomic stability second, provide physical infrastructure especially that which has fixed costs in relation to variable costs third, to supply public goods fourth, contribute to the development of institutions for improving the markets for labor, finance and technology fifth, offset or eliminate price distortions, which arise in cases of demonstrable market failure and sixth, redistribute income to the poorest in sufficient measure for them to meet basic needs. 

And even when income redistribution is in the interest of the donors, it need not be mocivated by that interest. 

As in this example, institutions can produce five kinds of effects. Some institutional actions are purely efficient they make everybody better off, as in the move from C to B or from D to Some are purely redistributive they transfer income without any waste, as in the move from A to B. Other actions achieve redistribution at the cost of some waste, as in the move from A to C. Still others achieve efficiency at the expense of the redistributive goal, as in the move from C to A. And some, finally, are purely destruaive, by making everybody worse off, as in the move from A to D. 

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