Radioactive transformation

The rate of radioactive transformations cannot be altered by changing the conditions which are available in the laboratory. The process is a spontaneous one. 

Briefly describe radioactive transformations, particularly as they apply to beta particle emissions. 

Radioactive transformations are accomplished by several different mechanisms, most importantly alpha ptirticle, beta particle, tuid gamma ray emissions, Each of tliese mechanisms are sponuuieous nuclear transformations. The result of these transformations is tlie formation of different tuid more stable elements. 

Tlie kind of trcuisformation tliat will take place for any given radioactive element is a function of the type of nuclear instability as well as the mass/eiiergy relationship. Tlie nuclear instability is dependent on the ratio of neutrons to protons a different type of decay will occur to allow for a more stable daughter product. The mass/energy relationship stales tliat for any radioactive transformation(s) the laws of conservation of mass tuid tlie conservation of energy must be followed. 

Describe radioactive transformations as they apply to alplia particles. 

Alpha particle radioactive transformations are best described by the following e.xample ... 

Fajans K (1913) Radioactive transformations and the periodic system of the elements. Berichte der Dautschen Chemischen Gesellschaft 46 422-439... 

Attree RW, Cabell MJ, Cushing RL, Pieroni JJ (1962) A calorimetric determination of the half-life of thorium-230 and a consequent revision to its neutron capture cross section. Can J Phys 40 194-201 Bateman H (1910) Solution of a system of differential equations occurring in the theory of radioactive transformations. Proc Cambridge Phil Soc 15 423-427 Beattie PD (1993) The generation of uranium series disequilibria by partial melting of spinel peridotite ... 

Beta Particle—An electron that is emitted from the nucleus of an atom during one type of radioactive transformation. A beta particle has a mass and charge equal in magnitude to that of the electron. The charge may be either +1 or -1. Beta particles with +1 charges are called positrons (symbolized (3+), and beta particles with -1 charges are called negatrons (symbolized (3 ). 

Decay, Radioactive—Transformation of the nucleus of an unstable nuclide by spontaneous emission of charged particles and/or photons (see Disintegration). 

Decay Product, Daughter Product, Progeny—A new nuclide formed as a result of radioactive decay. A nuclide resulting from the radioactive transformation of a radionuclide, formed either directly or as the result of successive transformations in a radioactive series. A decay product (daughter product or progeny) may be either radioactive or stable. 

The numerical combination of protons and neutrons in most nuclides is such that the nucleus is quantum mechanically stable and the atom is said to be stable, i.e., not radioactive however, if there are too few or too many neutrons, the nucleus is unstable and the atom is said to be radioactive. Unstable nuclides undergo radioactive transformation, a process in which a neutron or proton converts into the other and a beta particle is emitted, or else an alpha particle is emitted. Each type of decay is typically accompanied by the emission of gamma rays. These unstable atoms are called radionuclides their emissions are called ionizing radiation and the whole property is called radioactivity. Transformation or decay results in the formation of new nuclides some of which may themselves be radionuclides, while others are stable nuclides. This series of transformations is called the decay chain of the radionuclide. The first radionuclide in the chain is called the parent the subsequent products of the transformation are called progeny, daughters, or decay products. 

Hermetic and Rosicmdan circles such as the Golden Dawn began to engage more publicly with science after the discoveries of radiation, radioactive transformation, and radium. In a case like that of the Alchemical Society, two subjects, alchemy and radiation,4 allowed the groups from sharply different social worlds—those of mainstream science and occultism—to interact. These interactions also contributed to the popular press s alchemical understanding of the newly emerging discourse of atomic physics. 

Bateman, H. (1910). Solution of a system of differential equations occurring in the theory of radioactive transformations. Proc. Cambridge Phil. Soc., 15, 423-27. 

Rutherfordium - the atomic number is 104 and the chemical symbol is Rf. The name derives from the English physicist Ernest Rutherford who won the Nobel prize for developing the theory of radioactive transformations. Credit for the first synthesis of this element is jointly shared by American scientists at the University of California lab in Berkeley, California under Albert Ghiorso and by Russian scientists at the JINR (Joint Institute for Nuclear Reactions) lab in Dubna, Russia under Georgi N. Flerov. The longest half-life associated with this unstable element is 10 minute Rf. 

Rutherford, E., Radioactive Transformations, Charles Scribner s Sons,... 

Daniel Rutherford (1749—1819), Scotch botanist, first identified nitrogen (Ref 58, p 113). Do not confuse with Lord Ernest Rutherford (1871—1937), Brit physicist noted for his research on radioactive transformation and disintegration of nitrogen... 

The latter part of the citation covers work Soddy carried out while at the University of Glasgow. While there, he developed the displacement law of radioactive transformation, whereby an emitter of a radiation is displaced two places to the left in the periodic table (i.e., it is transformed into the element two to the right) and an emitter of p radiation is displaced one to the right. He also introduced the term isotope, a word suggested to him in the building shown in Figure 12. 

RADIUM. [CAS 7440-14-41, Chemical element symbol Ra, at. no. 88, at. wt. 226.025, periodic table group 2 (alkaline earths), mp 700VC, bp 1,140°C, density 5 g/cm3 (20°C). Radium metal is white, rapidly oxidized in air, decomposes H O, and evolves heat continuously at the rate of approximately 0.132 calorie per hour per mg when the decomposition products are retained, and the temperature of radium salts remains about 1,5°C above the surrounding environment. Radium is formed by radioactive transformation of uranium, about 3 million parts of uranium being accompanied in nature by 1 part radium. Radium spontaneously generates radon gas at approximately the rate of 100 mmJ per day per gram of radium, at standard conditions, Radium usually is handled as the chloride or bromide, either as solid or in solution. The radioactivity of the material... 

The fast neutrons will cause atomic displacement and transmutation reactions in the wall material. For example after 20 years of operation, a niobium wall would contain 10 at % Zr, 0.06 at % Y, 0.28 at % He, and 0.5 at %H53h The impact on the mechanical properties of construction materials due to displacement damage and radioactive transformation is under intensive study but does not properly fall under the subject matter of this chapter. 

The most common type of a radioactive transformation is / decay. Among all the radioactive elements (about 1700), more than 1200 undergo fi decay. The nuclear / decay is a transformation of a proton (p) into a neutron (n), and vice versa, accompanied by the emission of an electron (e ) and a neutrino (ve) or their antiparticles (e+, ve) according to the following schemes... 

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