Protic tautomerism

Before going into the details about the necessary modifications of TST, it is probably a good idea to introduce a few model systems, and show in some detail why the above-mentioned requirements are incorrect for protic tautomerization reactions. 

Protic tautomerism [1], which involves reversible intramolecular transfer of protons, usually between electronegative atoms, is an important feature not only of biologically relevant heterocycles [2] but also of a variety of potentially useful synthetic systems [3]. For instance, several current research themes involve the study of tautomeric processes as memory elements or as molecular switches with a view to developing future molecule-scale devices [4, 5]. 

An interesting case are the a,/i-unsaturated ketones, which form carbanions, in which the negative charge is delocalized in a 5-centre-6-electron system. Alkylation, however, only occurs at the central, most nucleophilic position. This regioselectivity has been utilized by Woodward (R.B. Woodward, 1957 B.F. Mundy, 1972) in the synthesis of 4-dialkylated steroids. This reaction has been carried out at high temperature in a protic solvent. Therefore it yields the product, which is formed from the most stable anion (thermodynamic control). In conjugated enones a proton adjacent to the carbonyl group, however, is removed much faster than a y-proton. If the same alkylation, therefore, is carried out in an aprotic solvent, which does not catalyze tautomerizations, and if the temperature is kept low, the steroid is mono- or dimethylated at C-2 in comparable yield (L. Nedelec, 1974). 

The Fischer cyclization is usually carried out with a protic or Lewis acid which functions both to facilitate the formation of the cnchydrazine by tautomerization and also to assist the N N bond breakage. The mechanistic basis of the Fischer cyclization has been discussed in recent reviews[l,2]. 

Since IR spectra are essentially due to vibrational transitions, many substituents with single bonds or isolated double bonds give rise to characteristic absorption bands within a limited frequency range in contrast, the absorption due to conjugated multiple bonds is usually not characteristic and cannot be ascribed to any particular grouping. Thus IR spectra afford reference data for identification of pyrimidines, for the identification of certain attached groups and as an aid in studying qualitatively the tautomerism (if any) of pyrimidinones, pyrimidinethiones and pyrimidinamines in the solid state or in non-protic solvents (see Section 2.13.1.8). 

The problem of tautomerism is simpler in the case of 1-substituted pyrazolin-3-ones since only two forms, the OH (140a) and the NH (140b), are possible. The OH form is the more stable and is the only one present in the crystal (Section 4.04.1.3.1). In protic solvents, like water or methanol, the equilibrium position is much more evenly balanced between the OH and NH forms. Finally, 4-hydroxypyrazoles (141) exist as such. A CNDO/2 calculation justifies the result that 4-hydroxy tautomers are relatively more stable than... 

In contrast with the oxocarboxylic acids, which readily participate in tautomeric equilibria in solution, their open-chain and cyclic N-unsubsti-tuted and A-monosubstituted amide isomers are more stable. In most cases, the tautomeric equilibrium (Scheme 3) is not observed in neutral aprotic solvents at ambient temperature. In protic solvents, e.g., CD3OD, intercon-... 

The fluorescence spectrum of the nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory agent piroxicam 21 has been determined in a variety of solvents (Scheme 7) <1999PCP4213>. The key observations are that the molecule exists with a strong H-bond between the phenolic OH and the adjacent amide. A very high Stokes shift in the excited state was observed and attributed to the proton-transfer event (tautomerization) between the phenolic and amide oxygens (cf. 21 —>63). In the case of protic solvents, such as water, the open conformation 64 was observed. 

The following example is a good illustration of these two facts the spirophosphorane 70 (Scheme 9), with a TBP structure, is a racemate of the enantiomers x and x, which can both be in tautomeric equilibrium with 70a, a derivative of tricoordinated phosphorus. The pentacoordinated P is electrophilic and can therefore undergo a number of reactions with nucleophilic reagents, whereas the tricoordinated P atom of 70a is nucleophilic or even biphilic, and 70a itself, with its OH group, has a nucleophilic protic centre with all its specific chemical properties. 

Short-lived organic radicals, electron spin resonance studies of, 5, 53 Small-ring hydrocarbons, gas-phase pyrolysis of, 4, 147 Solid state, tautomerism in the, 32, 129 Solid-state chemistry, topochemical phenomena in, 15, 63 Solids, organic, electrical conduction in, 16, 159 Solutions, reactions in, entropies of activation and mechanisms, 1, 1 Solvation and protonation in strong aqueous acids, 13, 83 Solvent effects, reaction coordinates, and reorganization energies on nucleophilic substitution reactions in aqueous solution, 38, 161 Solvent, protic and dipolar aprotic, rates of bimolecular substitution-reactions in,... 

A variety of spectroscopic evidence, notably UV-Vis spectroscopy, has been used to determine the tautomeric equilibria in substituted 2-hydroxypyridines <2002ARK198>. Electron-donating substituents favor the hydroxy-pyridine form, while electron-withdrawing substituents favor the pyridone form Hammett analysis of the substituent effects gives a p value of -4. The effect of solvent in this case is not as marked, with polarity being of greater significance than proticity. 

The question of tautomerism for 2-hydroxy- 17/-pyrrolo[3,2-(>]pyridine (29) has been addressed. In protic solvents, (29) and the other two tautomers shown in Scheme 4 have been detected by UV spectroscopy, whereas in the crystalline form tautomer (30) predominates <72JOC5i, 74JCS(Pi)i53i>. 

In hydrogen-bond donor solvents such as alcohols and trichloromethane, the tautomeric equilibrium is shifted in favor of the colourless form (12a) more than in other solvents. This is obviously due to the formation of hydrogen bonds between / 12a) and these protic solvents. In aprotic solvents, A//° is negative and the reaction is exothermic. Since, however, all AG° values are positive, the negative value of KH° must be over-compensated by a positive entropy change cf. Eq. (4-4). 

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