Properties of solids

Crystalline solids Ionic solids Molecular solids Atomic solids Electron sea model Alloy 

The ductile or brittle behavior of structural materials is usually determined by the familiar stress-strain test. In this test a steel bar of cross section A, on which a gagelength L has been marked, is subjected to an axial tensile load P which gradually increases from zero value until the bar breaks. As the axial tensile load increases, values of the elongation AL are taken. These measurements are related in the following manner  

Another class of materials (nonmetals) is capable of extremely great elastic deformations. These are called elastomeric materials. Usually, materials exhibiting plastic deformation under stress are the more desirable for structures. Ductility is desirable so that accidental stresses beyond design values can be redistributed to safer levels by means of plastic flow. 

Brittle materials have no such mechanism to protect them against 

The theory of elasticity treats solids as continuous elastic media. Solids are not continuous media, but are composed of atoms bound together in more or less regular arrays. Essentially three different types of solid structures exist, represented by glasses, plastics, and metals. 

Glasses. The principal characteristic noted in glass is the lack of any spatial order, even though the stoichiometry relationship between the metallic element and oxygen is observed. Liquids also show such lack of order, and glasses can be described to a first approximation as extremely viscous liquids. 

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P. P. Ewald and H. Juretschke, Structure and Properties of Solid Surfaces, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1953. 

Harrison W A 1989 Electronic Structure and the Properties of Solids The Physics of the Chemical Bond (New York Dover)... 

Computational solid-state physics and chemistry are vibrant areas of research. The all-electron methods for high-accuracy electronic stnicture calculations mentioned in section B3.2.3.2 are in active development, and with PAW, an efficient new all-electron method has recently been introduced. Ever more powerfiil computers enable more detailed predictions on systems of increasing size. At the same time, new, more complex materials require methods that are able to describe their large unit cells and diverse atomic make-up. Here, the new orbital-free DFT method may lead the way. More powerful teclmiques are also necessary for the accurate treatment of surfaces and their interaction with atoms and, possibly complex, molecules. Combined with recent progress in embedding theory, these developments make possible increasingly sophisticated predictions of the quantum structural properties of solids and solid surfaces. 

Cortona P 1991 Self-consistently determined properties of solids without band structure calculations Phys. Rev. B 44 8454... 

Ward I M 1971 Mechanical Properties of Solid Polymers (New York Wiley) p 329... 

A review of methods for predicting properties of solids and surfaces is... 

In discussions of the surface properties of solids having a large specific surface, it is convenient to distinguish between the external and the internal surface. The walls of pores such as those denoted by heavy lines in Fig. 1.8 and 1.11 clearly comprise an internal surface and equally obviously the surface indicated by lightly drawn lines is external in nature. In many cases, however, the distinction is not so clear, for the surfaces of the primary particles themselves suffer from imperfections in the forms of cracks and fissures those that penetrate deeply into the interior will contribute to the internal surface, whereas the superficial cracks and indentations will make up part of the external surface. The line of demarcation between the two kinds of surface necessarily has to be drawn in an arbitrary way, but the external surface may perhaps be taken to include all the prominences and all of those cracks which are wider than they are deep.,The internal surface will... 

Table 1. Physical Properties of Solid Acrylamide Monomer ...

H. J. Hoffman, Moisture Effects on Mechanical Properties of Solid Propellants, CPTR 84-29, CPIA Pubhcations, Johns Hopkins University, Laurel, Md., Feb. 1984. 

Table 2. Physical and Thermodynamic Properties of Solid Hydrogen...

I. M. Ward, Mechanical Properties of Solid Polymers, John Wiley Sons, Inc., New York, 1971. 

A useful approximation of B for a conical hopper is B = 22f/a, where a is the bulk density of the stored product. The apparatus for determining the properties of solids has been developed and is offered for sale by the consulting firm of Jenike and Johansen, Winchester, Massachusetts, which also performs these tests on a contract basis. The flow-factor FF tester, a constant-rate-of-strain, direct-shear-type machine, gives the locus of points for the FF cui ve as well as ( ), the... 

Properties of Solid Wastes Information on the properties of solid wastes is important in evaluating alternative equipment needs, systems, and management programs and plans. 

The electrical properties of solids are categorized into classes of conductivity dirough Ohm s law which states a relationship between conductivity a, cunent density J and applied potential E... 

The ideas developed in this chapter are descriptive of shock waves in fluids. Solids have many significant features that distinguish them from liquids and gases, such as shear strength, polymorphic phase transformations, heterogeneous structure, anisotropy, and viscoplastic behavior. The influences of these special properties of solids on shock compression are the topics of several of the other chapters, and for the most part are ignored in this introduction to the basic principles of shock compression. 

W. Herrmann, D.L. Hicks, and E.G. Young, Attenuation of Elastic-Plastic Stress Waves, in Shock Waves and the Mechanical Properties of Solids (edited by J.J. Burke and V. Weiss), Syracuse University Press, Syracuse, 1971, pp. 23-63. 

Graham, R.A., Impact Techniques for the Study of Physical Properties of Solids Under Shock-Wave Loading, J. Base Engrg. Trans. ASME 89, 911-918 (1967). 

Table 7-2 Composition and properties of solid impressed current anodes (without coke backfill)...

D. E. Aspnes. Thin Solid Films. 89, 249, 1982. A detailed review of effective medium theory and its use in studies of optical properties of solids. 

As shown in Fig. 7, a large increase in optical absorption occurs at higher photon energies above the HOMO-LUMO gap where electric dipole transitions become allowed. Transmission spectra taken in this range (see Fig. 7) confirm the similarity of the optical spectra for solid Ceo and Ceo in solution (decalin) [78], as well as a similarity to electron energy loss spectra shown as the inset to this figure. The optical properties of solid Ceo and C70 have been studied over a wide frequency range [78, 79, 80] and yield the complex refractive index n(cj) = n(cj) + and the optical dielectric function... 

The study of the multifarious magnetic properties of solids, followed in due course by the sophisticated control of those properties, has for a century been a central concern both of physicists and of materials scientists. The history of magnetism illustrates several features of modern materials science. 

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