Primary energy minimum

Clearly if the depth of the primary energy minimum and cohesive forces in the aggregate are very small, a detachment can take place. To overcome electrostatic repulsion is a critical task in microflotation systems of such type as well as in the transport stage. 

On the other hand, particles aggregated in a primary energy minimum form permanent filaments. Such aggregates do not break and preserve their linear geometry even when the magnetic... 

The LEED experiment relies on the duality of electrons, which have both particle and wave character. Electrons of primary energy, p, somewhere in the minimum of the mean-free path curve (Eig. 4.7) possess a wavelength, 1, that is comparable with the distance between atoms in a lattice ... 

TOFSIMS analyses were performed on a Kratos PRISM instrument. It was equipped with a reflectron-type time-of-flight mass analyzer and a pulsed 25 kV liquid metal ion source of monoisotopic 69Ga ions with a minimum beam size of 500 A. Positive and negative spectra were obtained at a primary energy of 25 keV, a pulse width of 10-50 ns, and a total integrated ion dose of about 10" ions/cm2. This is well below the generally accepted upper limit of 5 x 1012 ions/cm2 for static SIMS conditions in the analysis of organic materials [12], The mass resolution at mass 50 amu varied from M/AM= 1000 at 50 ns pulse width to about 2500 at 10 ns pulse width. 

Several investigations were carried out to study the above transitions from CF to common black film, and finally to Newton black film. For sodium dodecyl sulphate, the common black films have thicknesses ranging from 200 nm in very dilute systems to about 5.4 nm. The thickness depends heavily on the electrolyte concentration, while the stability may be considered to be caused by the secondary minimum in the energy distance curve. In cases where the film thins further and overcomes the primary energy maximum, it will fall into the primary minimum potential energy sink where very thin Newton black films are produced. The transition from common black films to Newton black films occurs at a critical electrolyte concentration which depends on the type of surfactant... 

It is the sequence of amino acids, referred to as the primary structure of the protein, that determines the native conformation, the structure that is stable under physiological conditions. The first protein amino acid sequence was determined by F. Sanger and coworker in 1953 for insulin.54 It is generally believed that the native structure corresponds to a free-energy minimum, although there is no direct experimental or theoretical evidence for this. One suggestive result is that it is possible to denature (unfold) many proteins in... 

The mechanism determining the folding of a given protein is presently the topic of intense research. For this discussion, it is sufficient to state that there exists a unique tertiary/quaternary structure for each native protein chain, determined as an energy minimum in aqueous solution. The information to reach this structure is thought to be encoded in the primary sequence in a way not yet understood completely. The... 

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