Primary electrostatic energy

Explosives are commonly categorized as primary, secondary, or high explosives. Primary or initiator explosives are the most sensitive to heat, friction, impact, shock, and electrostatic energy. These have been studied in considerable detail because of the almost unique capabiUty, even when present in small quantities, to rapidly transform a low energy stimulus into a high intensity shock wave. 

Let J,o be the dipole moment of a solvent molecule and Tq its radius. The electrostatic energy of interaction between the ion and hj solvent molecules in the primary shell when computed per mole of ions can be written as... 

HREELS experiments [66] were performed in a UHV chamber. The chamber was pre-evacuated by polyphenylether-oil diffusion pump the base pressure reached 2 x 10 Torr. The HREELS spectrometer consisted of a double-pass electrostatic cylindrical-deflector-type monochromator and the same type of analyzer. The energy resolution of the spectrometer is 4-6 meV (32-48 cm ). A sample was transferred from the ICP growth chamber to the HREELS chamber in the atmosphere. It was clipped by a small tantalum plate, which was suspended by tantalum wires. The sample was radia-tively heated in vacuum by a tungsten filament placed at the rear. The sample temperature was measured by an infrared (A = 2.0 yum) optical pyrometer. All HREELS measurements were taken at room temperature. The electron incident and detection angles were each 72° to the surface normal. The primary electron energy was 15 eV. 

Diazodinitrophenol (CgH Oj) has been used as an initiator in industrial blasting caps. It is less sensitive to impact, friction, and electrostatic energy than other primary explosives. It is orange-yellow in color and is sparingly soluble in water.11... 

A study of static charge build-up on the human body in an arctic environment and how it might affect initiation of primers was reported recently (Ref 57). For an earlier discussion of charge build-up on humans see Ref 33. Operations are considered hazardous when the electrostatic energy potential during the suspected operation exceeds the threshold initiation level for the hazardous material. The human body can constitute a hazard when the material can be initiated by a discharge of less than 0.015 J, as is the case with primary expls... 

In general, the electrostatic repulsion is evident at a shorter distance than the steric interaction as long as the adsorbed molecules do not desorb from the particle surface. When three interactions (i.e., electrostatic, van der Waals, and steric) are combined, a primary maximum energy at a large distance results. 

Since the field equations are linear, we can obtain a solution to the original problem by adding up the contributions for each summand separately. Since the error function is rapidly deca3ung, the first summand is short-ranged and can be treated directly in real space, while the second summand is now a smooth function ever3rwhere and therefore can be treated in Fourier space. Note that the use of the error function is somewhat arbitrary see [10-12] for other options. However, this choice allows for a particularly simple solution in Fourier space. We obtain the well known Ewald formula for the electrostatic energy of the primary box ... 

The major difference between the two techniques lies in the energies of the incoming ion beam. In ISS. also called low-energy ion scattering, the primary ion energies are in the range of 0..5-5 keV, Noble gas ions, such as lie. Ar, and Ne. and alkali ions, such as l.i. Na, or K, are used. An electron-impact ion souree is most often used with an electrostatic or ttme-ol-fliglu analyzer. In the ISS technique, information is obtained from the topmost atomic layer or. in some cases, from one or two layers directly below. 

Those workers who use periodic boundary conditions must contend with the calculation of the Coulomb energy, which because of its infinitely long range must be summed over all pair interactions in the primary cell and all interactions between a particle in the cell and the infinite number of image particles. The procedure adopted by these workers is to evaluate the electrostatic energy using a Ewald summation technique. ... 

Physical Basis. In XPS, the sample inside a high vacuum system (pressure <10 Pa or 10 torr) is irradiated with soft X rays, usually Mg Ka (1253.6 eV) or A1 Ka (1486.6 eV). The primary event is photoemission of a core electron, but relaxation processes also lead to emission of Auger electrons or photons, as shown in Figure 1. The emitted electrons are collected by an electrostatic energy analyzer and detected as a function of kinetic energy Ey, producing a spectrum such as illustrated in Figure 2. 

Preston (1985) described the solvent extraction behavior of a large number of metal cations including rare earth nitrates in solutions of Versatic 10 (2-ethyl-2-methylheptanoic acid), naphthenic, 2-bromodecanoic and 3,5-diisopropylsalicylic acids in xylene. The last two acids extract metal cations under more acidic conditions, pH 1-2. For Versatic 10 the order of extraction of yttrium and lanthanides is La < Ce < Nd < Gd < Y < Ho < Yb and for naphthenic acids it is La < Ce < Y < Nd < Gd k Ho Yb. The lanthanides tend to form complexes of predominantly ionic nature. In the case of Versatic 10, the stability of the complexes increases uniformly with atomic number due to the increase in electrostatic energy as a result of the decrease in ionic radius. The primary branched naphthenic acid allows the formation of complexes with high coordination number, nine for La to Nd, eight and eventually six as the metal ionic radius decreases. In general, the extraction of a metal ion by a carboxylic acid H2A2 can be represented by the reaction... 

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