PE-CVD

Whereas a microwave plasma is most commonly used for the PE-CVD of diamond films, an ECR is the only plasma that is used for diamond deposition below 1 Torr [27-29]. Although Bozeman et al. [30] reported diamond deposition at 4 Torr with the use of a planar ICP, there have been a few reports that describe the synthesis of diamond by low-pressure ICP. Okada et al. [31-33] first reported the synthesis of nanocrystalline diamond particles in a low-pressure CH4/CO/H2 ICP, followed by Teii and Yoshida [34], with the same gas-phase chemistry. 

In the following, each step will be described, both for the AP-CVD and for the LP-CVD cases. The results presented are focused on those properties of ZnO films that are useful for thin film solar cell applications, i.e., transparency, conductivity, and light scattering capability. The last part of paragraph 6.2 comments briefly on alternative methods of CVD processes that have been investigated for ZnO deposition (PE-CVD, photo-CVD,. ..). 

In the same manner, PE-CVD of ZnO has been first studied with the goal of improving the crystallinity of c-axis oriented ZnO him growth at low substrate temperature (i.e. between 150 and 300°C) [49,50]. More recently, expanding thermal plasma has been coupled with an LP-CVD chamber in order to deposit natively rough ZnO films [51-53]. Fig. 6.46 shows the expanding thermal plasma aixtron reactor system used at Eindhoven University of Technology to deposit PE-CVD ZnO films. 

Numerous deposition methods, such as ionized metal plasma deposition, physical vapor deposition, ALD, CVD, PA-CVD, PE-CVD, electroplating and electroless plating have been used to deposit copper films on different substrates. For CVD and ALD, several copper(I) and copper(II) enolates were developed which may be of interest as suitable precursors. The use of these complexes enabled the development of new technologies that are demanded to fulfill the requirements of the microelectronic industry. 

Plasma-enhanced (PE) CVD deposition of silicon nitride is typically performed at temperatures between 250 °C and 400 °C from silane (SiH4) and ammonia (NH3) gases. The plasma enhances the deposition rates. The deposition rate strongly depends on the deposition temperature and RF power, typical rates being around 400 nmmin4 [17]. Because of the low deposition temperature,... 

Figure 5.9 shows the growth rate (R) as a function of reciprocal (absolnte) temperature for various PE-CVD and T-CVD synthesized nanotubes, nanoflbers, and graphene [135,192,204]. Data has been linearly fitted according to the Arhenius relation ... 

Various positional control techniques exist. Many require time-consuming nanomanipulators operated by skiUed individuals who accurately position individual, previously grown CNTs [221,222]. By combining PE-CVD with mass production facilitated by parallelized lithographic techniques, many millions of CNTs can be simultaneously grown, positioned, and even aligned with extremely high accuracy. 

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