PBDEs alternative flame retardants

HBCD is a brominated aliphatic cyclic hydrocarbon used as a flame retardant in thermal insulation building materials, upholstery textiles, and electronics. In 2001, the world market demand for HBCD was 16,700 tons, from which 9,500 tons was sold in the EU. These figures make HBCD the second highest volume BFR used in Europe [29], HBCD may be used as an alternative for PBDEs in some applications. To date, there are no restrictions on the production or use of HBCD. As a result of their widespread use and their physical and chemical properties, HBCD are now ubiquitous contaminants in the environment and humans [30, 31]. 

As a result of both gradual voluntary production cuts and legislative measures, production of technical mixtures of PBDEs has decreased and conversely there have been increases in the production of alternative non-PBDE flame retardants. The alternative retardants include bis(2,4,6-tribromophenoxy)ethane (BTBPE, 12-141), octabromo-1-phenyl-1,3,3-trimethyhndane (Br indane, 12-142), decabromodiphenylethane (DBDPE, 12-143) and certain other compounds. These substances have similar properties to PBDEs, contain an aromatic nucleus, more bromine atoms and are... 

Stapleton HM, Allen JG, Kelly SM et al (2008a) Alternate and new brominated flame retardants detected in U.S. house dust. Environ Sci Technol 42 6910-6916 Stapleton HM, Dodder NG, Kucklick JR et al (2006) Determination of HBCD, PBDEs and MeO-BDEs in California sea lions (Zalophus califomianus) stranded between 1993 and 2003. Mar Pollut Bull 52 522-531... 

The presence of ethers in the atmosphere is almost entirely the result of direct emissions from anthropogenic sources (e.g., Arif et al., 1997 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2001 Johnson and Andino, 2001 http //en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethers and references therein). These sources can be quite varied and species dependent for example, many ethers are commonly used as industrial solvents many are formed as combustion intermediates and in the burning of biomass various branched ethers (e.g., methyl tert-butyl ether) are (or have been) used as fuel additives to increase octane number and reduce CO emissions dimethyl ether has being proposed as an alternative diesel fuel many fluorinated species have been manufactured, evaluated and used as possible chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) and hydrochlorofluorocarbon (HCFC) replacement compounds some halogenated species are used as inhalation anaesthetics or as chlorofluorocarbon replacements and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) are used as flame retardants. There are no major routes to ether formation in the atmosphere itself. 

---