Paracrine regulation

Challis, J.R. et al., Endocrine and paracrine regulation of birth at term and preterm, Endocr. 

The GI system is responsible at its most basic level for providing a continual supply of water, electrolytes, minerals, and nutrients. This is achieved by a myriad of specialized cells and coordinated interplay of motility, secretion, digestion, absorption, blood flow, and lymph flow. These components are under elaborate control of the central and enteric nervous systems, endocrine and paracrine regulation of hormones. The highly complex nature of GI function is clearly illustrated by the estimate that 80 to 100 million neurons exist within the enteric nervous system, a number comparable to that found within the spinal column, hence described as a "second brain."171... 

Morganti-Kossmann MC, Kossmann T, Brandes ME, Mergenhagen SE, Wahl SM Autocrine and paracrine regulation of astrocyte function by transforming growth factor-(5. J Neuroimmunol 1992 39 163-173. 

Urodilatin is synthesized in the distal tubules of the kidneys by alternative processing of the ANP precursor. It elicits potent natriuresis and diuresis, and thus functions as a paracrine regulator of sodium and water excretion. It also relaxes vascular smooth muscle. 

Gastrointestinal tract Autocrine/paracrine Regulation of bicarbonate secretion, gut motility, sodium handling, exocrine secretions... 

Kidney (synthesized from circulating L-dopa) Autocrine/paracrine Regulation of natriuresis... 

Carey RM. Theodore Cooper Lecture Renal dopamine system paracrine regulator of sodium homeostasis and blood pressure. Hypertension 2001 38 297-302. 

Paracrine regulation of islet cell hormonal secretion. , Stimulation ... 

Gardner, B., et al. (2002) Autocrine and paracrine regulation of lymphocyte CB2 receptor expression by TGF-b. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 290, 91-96. 

Brown, J.M., M.S. Boysen, S. Chung, O. Fabiyi, R. Morrision, S. Mandrup, and M. McIntosh. Conjugated Linoleic Acid (CLA) Induces Human Adipocyte Delipidation Autocrine/Paracrine Regulation of MEK/ERK Signaling by Adipocytokines. J. Biol. Chem. 279 26735-26747 (2004). 

Lazar-Molnar E, Hegyesi H, Toth S, Falus A. Autocrine and paracrine regulation by c)4okines and growth factors in melanoma. Cytokine 2000 12 547-554. 

Brogi E, Schatteman G, Wu T, et al. Hypoxia-induced paracrine regulation of vascular endothelial growth factor recptor expression. J Clin Invest 1996 97 469-476. 

The complexity of neural, endocrine, and paracrine regulation is illustrated in the following table, which displays ligands that have been shown to affect gastric add secretion by direct action on gastric mucosal cells as well as their probable cellular site of action. 

The exact source of somatostatin acting on the oxyntic mucosa has been a matter of some debate, because cells containing somatostatin-D cells-are present both in the antrum and in the oxyntic mucosa. Additionally, postganglionic nerve fibers in the submucosa contain somatostatin, which may act as a neural transmitter. Because mucosal D cells, both in the antrum and in the fundus, possess elongated basal processes, somatostatin released locally may function as a paracrine regulator. 

A. Colocalization and Corelease Evidence for Auto- and/or Paracrine Regulation of Transmitter Release... 

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