Observations incorrect

The risk and its minimization depend heavily on the adopted loss structure. If null losses are imputed to rejecting unacceptable observations and accepting acceptable observations (correct decisions) and the same positive loss (L) is imputed to accepting unacceptable and rejecting acceptable observations (incorrect decisions) the resultant risk is ... 

This implies that a cut-off limit must be established for functional depths, so that the observations incorrectly classified as outliers do not exceed 1% [9], A bootstrap process is made to determine the cut-off limit [10], which calculates this cut-off parameter by determining functions with depths below the calculated value as functional outliers. This is proposed below for the first time as a valid tool for the analysis of quality characteristics of electrical power systems and particularly for the analysis of harmonics. 

Targets and spirals have been observed in the CIMA/CDIMA system [13] and also in dilute flames (i.e. flames close to their lean flammability limits) in situations of enlianced heat loss [33]. In such systems, substantial fiiel is left unbumt. Spiral waves have also been implicated in the onset of cardiac arrhytlnnia [32] the nomial contractive events occurring across the atria in the mannnalian heart are, in some sense, equivalent to a wave pulse initiated from the sino-atrial node, which acts as a pacemaker. If this pulse becomes fragmented, perhaps by passing over a region of heart muscle tissue of lower excitability, then spiral structures (in 3D, these are scroll waves) or re-entrant waves may develop. These have the incorrect... 

As witli tlie nematic phase, a chiral version of tlie smectic C phase has been observed and is denoted SniC. In tliis phase, tlie director rotates around tlie cone generated by tlie tilt angle [9,32]. This phase is helielectric, i.e. tlie spontaneous polarization induced by dipolar ordering (transverse to tlie molecular long axis) rotates around a helix. However, if tlie helix is unwound by external forces such as surface interactions, or electric fields or by compensating tlie pitch in a mixture, so tliat it becomes infinite, tlie phase becomes ferroelectric. This is tlie basis of ferroelectric liquid crystal displays (section C2.2.4.4). If tliere is an alternation in polarization direction between layers tlie phase can be ferrielectric or antiferroelectric. A smectic A phase foniied by chiral molecules is sometimes denoted SiiiA, altliough, due to the untilted symmetry of tlie phase, it is not itself chiral. This notation is strictly incorrect because tlie asterisk should be used to indicate the chirality of tlie phase and not tliat of tlie constituent molecules. 

In the nonclassical ion controversy discussed in Chapter 9, there was never any question on either side of the debate about the validity of the observed data, only about their interpretation. Had any of the experimental data been questioned or found to be incorrect, this would have been soon found out because so many people repeated and rechecked the data. This is the strength of science (in contrast to politics, economics, etc.), i.e., that we deal with reproducible experimental observation and data. Nevertheless, interpretation can still result in heated discussions or controversies, but science eventually will sort these out based on new results and data. 

The author has often wondered how often machines are redesigned and rebuilt or even replaced for reasons that were later found to be incorrect. Based on observations over a considerable number of years, the number might be staggering. Ironically, the incorrect diagnosis sometimes results in a solution that will at least for the time being appear to fix the problem. This type of solution may possibly lead to a future problem because an incorrect symptom-cause relationship is established that will not hold true on another application at another time. All of this is being said to stress the need for proper and careful problem solving that accurately determines the real cause for the problem. It is difficult to address the common sense side of reliability and not make some type of... 

Given the various release-wave behaviors summarized above, it is clear that release waves may often dominate wave profiles, and failure to consider their influences can lead to incorrect interpretation of observed materials responses, especially those in which samples are preserved for post-shock... 

It is worth remembering that a theory can never be proven correct. It can only be proven incorrect, incomplete, or inadequate. Thus, theories are always being tested and refined. As important as anything else in the scientific method is the testabie hypothesis. Once a theory is proposed, experiments are designed to test its validity. If the results are consistent with the theory, our belief in its soundness is strengthened. If the results conflict with it, the theory is flawed and must be modified. Section 6.7 describes some observations that support the theory that car-bocations are intermediates in the addition of hydrogen halides to alkenes. 

The observations that heteroaromatic amino compounds are not easily diazotized, are quite readily hydrolyzed,and often do not form Schiff bases with aldehydes have all been incorrectly interpreted as indications that these compounds exist principally in the imino form, whereas these observations can reasonably be attributed to the fact that the amino groups in compounds of the type of 4-aminopyridine are electron deficient as a result of the contribution of structures of type 36. ... 

The second group of chemical methods is based on a comparison of the structure (s) of the reaction product(s) with that of the starting material. These methods can be illustrated by the observation that l-methylpyrid-2-onimine (38) is formed when 2-aminopyridine (37) is allowed to react with methyl iodide followed by treatment with alkali. From these data it was incorrectly concluded that 2-aminopyridine reacted, or existed, in the imino form. Actually, the... 

The reason for this instability is that the blowers are incorrectly sized for the application and are mnning well outside their performance curve. In effect, the blowers have no back-pressure and are operating in a mn-out condition. The result of operating in this condition is that the design load intended to stabilized the rotor is no longer present. This causes the shaft to deflect or flex, generating the high amplitudes observed in the horizontal mode plot. 

A. Two site model with two equivalent non-interacting binding sites. Kb = 1.2 M 1, koff = 6.6x10 7 sec, kcb = 1.3 x 107/sec. This model is incorrect because a tight and a weak site have been observed with different off-rate constants as listed in part B. 

How do we know that the carbocation mechanism for electrophilic addition reactions of alkenes is correct The answer is that we don t know it s correct at least we don t know with complete certainty. Although an incorrect reaction mechanism can be disproved by demonstrating that it doesn t account for observed data, a correct reaction mechanism can never be entirely proved. The best we can do is to show that a proposed mechanism is consistent with all known facts. If enough facts are accounted for, the mechanism is probably correct. 

This was a claim that I and several other authors criticized in a number of journals, but unfortunately not in Nature magazine.11 Although the authors of the Orbitals Observed study protested their innocence, it became clear that their claims had been incorrect and exaggerated.12 In a section of the same paper, I discussed the notion that the 4s atomic orbital is occupied before the 3d orbitals. This has subsequently turned out to be incorrect and there is conclusive spectroscopic evidence to the contrary which seemed to have escaped the attention of several authors who have written on this issue, including myself.13... 

This explanation turned out to be incorrect for this system, although it might apply to some future one. Indeed, recent studies of Teyssie8 b) revealed that in the polymerization of oxiranes initiated in non-polar solvents by Al—Zn oxyalkoxides the slower methyl oxirane is more strongly coordinated with the catalytic center than the faster epichlorhydrine. It is possible that the behaviour postulated by Korotkov might be observed in such systems. 

Obviously any mechanism proposed for a reaction must account for all the products obtained and for their relative proportions, including products formed by side reactions. Incorrect mechanisms for the von Richter reaction (13-21) were accepted for many years because it was not realized that nitrogen was a major product. A proposed mechanism cannot be correct if it fails to predict the products in approximately the observed proportions. For example, any mechanism for the reaction... 

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