Normalized extensional viscosity, equation

Extensional flows occur when fluid deformation is the result of a stretching motion. Extensional viscosity is related to the stress required for the stretching. This stress is necessary to increase the normalized distance between two material entities in the same plane when the separation is s and the relative velocity is ds/dt. The deformation rate is the extensional strain rate, which is given by equation 13 (108) ... 

The rheological responses measured at low values of strain better reflect the effects of the blend structure. For multiphase systems, there are serious disagreements between the predictions of continuum-based theories and experiments, that is, between the small and large deformation behavior. For example, the identity of zero-deformation rate dynamic and steady state viscosity is seldom found, and so is the Trouton rule. Similarly, the derived by Cogswell, relationship between the extensional viscosity and the capillary entrance pressure drop, and derived by Tanner equation for calculating the first normal stress difference from the extrudate swell, are rarely valid. 

It is clear that viscoelastic fluids require a constitutive equation that is capable of describing time-dependent rheological properties, normal stresses, elastic recovery, and an extensional viscosity which is independent of the shear viscosity. It is not clear at this point exactly as to how a constitutive equation for a viscoelastic fluid, when coupled with the equations of motion, leads to the prediction of behavior (i.e., velocity and stress fields) which is any different from that calculated for a Newtonian fluid. As the constitutive relations for polymeric fluids lead to nonlinear differential equations that cannot easily be solved, it is difficult to show how their use affects calculations. Furthermore, it is not clear how using a constitutive equation, which predicts normal stress differences, leads to predictions of velocity and stress fields which are significantly different from those predicted by using a Newtonian fluid model. Finally, there are numerous possibilities of constitutive relations from which to choose. The question is then When and how does one use a viscoelastic constitutive relation in design calculations especially when sophisticated numerical methods such as finite element methods are not available to the student at this point For the... 

In principle, some types of nonspherical particles could be packed more tightly than spheres, although they would start to interact at lower concentrations. In reality, higher viscosities are normally found with nonspherical particles. The concentration law is approximately exponential at low to moderate concentrations, but equations similar to eq. 10.5.1 can still be used as well. The empirical value of 4>m can be much smaller than that for spherical particles (e.g., 0.44 for rough crystals with aspect ratios close to unity Kitano et al., 1981). If fibers are used, this value drops even further, down to 0.18 for an aspect ratio of 27 (see also Metzner, 1985). The decrease with aspect ratio seems to be roughly linear. Homogeneous suspensions of fibers with large aspect ratios are difficult to prepare and handle. As in dilute systems, the type of flow will determine the extent of the shape effect. Extensional flows are discussed below. 

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