Microscope, invention

In a confocal microscope, invented in the mid-1950s, a focused spot of light scans the specimen. The fluorescence emitted by the specimen is separated from the incident beam by a dichroic mirror and is focused by the objective lens through a pinhole aperture to a photomultiplier. Fluorescence from out-of-focus planes above and below the specimen strikes the wall of the aperture and cannot pass through the pinhole (Figure 11.3). 

Yeast used to leaven bread and make beer and wine Moldy soybean curds used to treat boils (first antibiotic) Crops and livestock domesticated Powdered chrysanthemums used as first insecticide Microscope invented... 

Kelly A. Quin. Reproduced by permission p. 95 Tungsten crystal, magnified 2,7000,000 times, through a super-powered Muller Field Ion Microscope invented by Dr. Erwin W. Muller, photograph. 

Transmutation The idea that matter can be made to change from one form to another. Alchemists generally wanted to transmute base metals such as lead or iron into gold or silver. After the discovery of radioactivity, it was found that one element could be converted to another, such as uranium to lead. The fusion process in stars could be considered a kind of cosmic transmutation. Ultramicroscope A special form of microscope invented by Richard Zsigmondy and H. Siedentopf in 1903. It uses the Tyndall effect (light scattering from small particles) to make observations of particles at the absolute limit of optical resolution at about 5 millimicrons. Used in experiments that demonstrated the existence of physical molecules and atoms. 

The first two propositions deal with the physical structure of matter. There are two levels of organization—minutest particles, Boyle s corpuscles, which may associate into coalitions of minute masses or clusters. Microscopes, invented around the start of the seventeenth century, provided direct evidence of the ex-tream littleness of even the scarce sensible parts of concretes. " Boyle s associate Hooke published his masterpiece, Micrographia (see the next essay), just four years after The Sceptical Chymist. Boyle noted further that quicksilver could be distilled, dissolved in acids and filtered, and converted to amalgams that could be finely ground, but all finely divided forms could eventually be recovered as the shiny, metallic liquid. One of Boyle s most wonderful works is his Effluviums essay (1673) (see Figure 170), in which he imagines the smallest physically measurable... 

When and by whom was the scanning tunneling microscope invented ... 

The field emission microscope (FEM), invented in 1936 by Muller [59, 60], has provided major advances in the structural study of surfaces. The subject is highly developed and has been reviewed by several groups [2, 61, 62], and only a selective, introductory presentation is given here. Some aspects related to chemisorption are discussed in Chapter XVII. 

It is remarkable that tire roots of the SFA go back to the early 1960s [1], Tabor and Winterton [2] and Israelachvili and Tabor [3] developed it to the current state of the art some 15 years before the invention of the more widely used atomic force microscope (AFM) (see chapter B1.19). 

The development of the STEM is relatively recent compared to the TEM and the SEM. Attempts were made to build a STEM instrument within 15 years after the invention of the electron microscope in 1932. However the modern STEM, which had to await the development of modern electronics and vacuum techniques, was developed by Albert Crewe and his coworkers at the University of Chicago. ... 

This slow diffusion of a crucial new technique can be compared with the invention of the scanning tunnelling microscope (STM) by Binnig and Rohrer, first made public in 1983, like X-ray diffraction rewarded with the Nobel Prize 3 years later, but unlike X-ray diffraction quickly adopted throughout the world. That invention, of comparable importance to the discoveries of 1912,now(2 decades later) has sprouted numerous variants and has virtually created a new branch of surface science. With it, investigators can not only see individual surface atoms but they can also manipulate atoms singly (Eigler and Schweitzer 1990). This rapid adoption of... 

After 1934, research on dislocations moved very slowly, and little had been done by the time the War came. After the War, again, research at first moved slowly. In my view, it was not coincidence that theoretical work on dislocations accelerated at about the same time that the first experimental demonstrations of the actual existence of dislocations were published and turned invention into discovery . In accord with my remarks in Section 3.1.3, it was a case of seeing is believing all the numerous experimental demonstrations involved the use of a microscope. The first demonstration was my own observation, first published in 1947, of the process of polygonization, stimulated and christened by Orowan (my thesis adviser). When a metal crystal is plastically bent, it is geometrically necessary that it contains an excess of positive over negative dislocations when the crystal is then heated, most of the dislocations of... 

F. Zernike (Groningen) demonstration of the phase contrast method and invention of the phase contrast microscope. 

The main technique employed for in situ electrochemical studies on the nanometer scale is the Scanning Tunneling Microscope (STM), invented in 1982 by Binnig and Rohrer [62] and combined a little later with a potentiostat to allow electrochemical experiments [63]. The principle of its operation is remarkably simple, a typical simplified circuit being shown in Figure 6.2-2. 

Binnig et al. [48] invented the atomic force microscope in 1985. Their original model of the AFM consisted of a diamond shard attached to a strip of gold foil. The diamond tip contacted the surface directly, with the inter-atomic van der Waals forces providing the interaction mechanism. Detection of the cantilever s vertical movement was done with a second tip—an STM placed above the cantilever. Today, most AFMs use a laser beam deflection system, introduced by Meyer and Amer [49], where a laser is reflected from the back of the reflective AFM lever and onto a position-sensitive detector. 

The scanning tunneling microscope (STM) was invented by Binnig and Rohrer in 1982. This quickly led to the award of a Nobel prize in 1986. Initially, STM proved... 

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