Manufacture of battery systems

Thus, the emissions associated with the manufacture of battery systems, like those associated with the production of the primary raw materials, are generally quite low, probably less than 1% of the total potential emissions if the spent battery were discarded entirely into the environment after use. While most of the data presented above are relevant mainly to nickel-cadmium batteries, which have been heavily studied because of regulatory and environmental controversy, the same general conclusions apply to other battery systems in general with some variations. Primary raw material production and battery manufacturing, in general, contribute only a small fraction of the environmental or human health impact that might be encountered in unconsidered waste disposal. 

The easy removeability provision is also specified in the 1996 legislation and was an early requirement in several of the state NiCd battery recycling laws. These provisions were developed at the time when many NiCd battery power tools and appliances did not provide for easy removeability, mainly as a consumer safety measure. Since the early 1990s, however, battery operated tools, appliances and other devices have been designed so that in most cases the batteries are easily removable while still ensuring consumer safety. In fact, many manufacturers of battery powered tools today market replacement battery packs, which are interchangeable in a number of different tools. Only in certain systems such as computer memory backup and medical devices are the batteries permanently installed to avoid system failure. 

In the 1970s, major automobile manufacturers, hit by the oil crisis, reinitiated research and development (R D) projects on EVs to improve their velocity and driving mileage based on the development of battery systems. 

As of this writing, there is Httle commercialization of advanced battery systems. Small rechargeable lithium button cells have been commercialized, however, by Sanyo, Matsushita (Panasonic), and Toshiba. These cells are intended for original equipment manufacturer (OEM) use in appHcations such as memory backup and are not available to the general consumer. 

The fact that solar energy is an intermittent energy resource means that energy storage systems (e.g., batteries, ultracapacitors, flywheels, and even hydrogen) will be required if solar energy is to be utilized widely. In addition, a variety of toxic chemicals are used in the manufacture of PV cells however, studies of the risks associated with their manufacture and disposal indicate little threat to surroundings and the environment. 

This specialized form of supply air system is often used in large open industrial spaces. It comprises a modular system of components that can be built up into simple systems. A typical system might have a roof inlet cowl, a recirculation damper, a heater battery, a fan, one or two outlet grilles and short sections of connecting ductwork, and would handle airflows up to 3-4m /s, depending on size. A number of individual systems would be used to provide the total airflow required in the space (Figure 28.4). Systems are normally manufactured with aluminum casings to reduce the roof load. 

At present batteries worth more than 30 billion USD are produced every year and the demand is still increasing rapidly as more and more mobile electronic end electric devices ranging from mobile phones to electric vehicles are entering into our life. The various materials required to manufacture these batteries are mostly supplied by the chemical industry. Ten thousands of chemists, physicists and material scientists are focusing on the development of new materials for energy storage and conversion. As the performance of the battery system is in many cases a key issue deciding the market success of a cordless product there is in fact a kind of worldwide race for advanced batteries. 

In subsequent sections we provide brief information on batteries of various electrochemical systems. The major electrochemical features of each type will be pointed out. The relative discharge characteristics of batteries of the various systems are shown in Fig. 19.4 as a Ragone plot of w vs. p. For specific details of design and manufacturing technology, as well as for more details on performance and characterization, battery books and monographs should be consulted. 

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