Insulin dephosphorylation

Figure 2. Mechanism of PDH. The three different subunits of the PDH complex in the mitochondrial matrix (E, pyruvate decarboxylase E2, dihydrolipoamide acyltrans-ferase Ej, dihydrolipoamide dehydrogenase) catalyze the oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate to acetyl-CoA and CO2. E, decarboxylates pyruvate and transfers the acetyl-group to lipoamide. Lipoamide is linked to the group of a lysine residue to E2 to form a flexible chain which rotates between the active sites of E, E2, and E3. E2 then transfers the acetyl-group from lipoamide to CoASH leaving the lipoamide in the reduced form. This in turn is oxidized by E3, which is an NAD-dependent (low potential) flavoprotein, completing the catalytic cycle. PDH activity is controlled in two ways by product inhibition by NADH and acetyl-CoA formed from pyruvate (or by P-oxidation), and by inactivation by phosphorylation of Ej by a specific ATP-de-pendent protein kinase associated with the complex, or activation by dephosphorylation by a specific phosphoprotein phosphatase. The phosphatase is activated by increases in the concentration of Ca in the matrix. The combination of insulin with its cell surface receptor activates PDH by activating the phosphatase by an unknown mechanism.

Both phosphorylase a and phosphorylase kinase a are dephosphorylated and inactivated by protein phos-phatase-1. Protein phosphatase-1 is inhibited by a protein, inhibitor-1, which is active only after it has been phosphorylated by cAMP-dependent protein kinase. Thus, cAMP controls both the activation and inactivation of phosphorylase (Figure 18-6). Insulin reinforces this effect by inhibiting the activation of phosphorylase b. It does this indirectly by increasing uptake of glucose, leading to increased formation of glucose 6-phosphate, which is an inhibitor of phosphorylase kinase. 

Figure 21-6. Regulation of acetyl-CoA carboxylase by phosphorylation/dephosphorylation.The enzyme is inactivated by phosphorylation by AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), which in turn is phosphorylated and activated by AMP-activated protein kinase kinase (AMPKK). Glucagon (and epinephrine), after increasing cAMP, activate this latter enzyme via cAMP-dependent protein kinase. The kinase kinase enzyme is also believed to be activated by acyl-CoA. Insulin activates acetyl-CoA carboxylase, probably through an "activator" protein and an insulin-stimulated protein kinase.

Insulin and other growth factors result in the phosphorylation of BP-1 at five unique sites. Phosphorylation of BP-1 results in its dissociation from 4E, and it cannot rebind until critical sites are dephosphorylated. The protein kinase responsible has not been identified, but it appears to be different from the one that phos-phorylates 4E. A kinase in the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) pathway, perhaps mTOR itself, is involved. These effects on the activation of 4E explain in part how insuhn causes a marked posttranscriptional... 

Insulin binding to the extracellular side of cell membranes initiates the insulin cascade , a series of phosphorylation/dephosphorylation steps. A postulated mechanism for vanadium is substitution of vanadate for phosphate in the transition state structure of protein tyrosine phosphatases (PTP).267,268 In normal physiological conditions, the attainable oxidation states of vanadium are V111, Viv and Vv. Relevant species in solution are vanadate, (a mixture of HV042-/ H2VOO and vanadyl V02+. Vanadyl is not a strong inhibitor of PTPs, suggesting other potential mechanisms for insulin mimesis for this cation. 

Welsh, G. I., Miller, C. M Loughlin, A. J., Price, N. T., and Proud, C. G. (1998). Regulation of eukaryotic initiation factor eIF2B Glycogen synthase kinase-3 phosphor-ylates a conserved serine which undergoes dephosphorylation in response to insulin. FEBS Lett. 421, 125-130. 

In the fed state when the insulin glucagon ratio is high, would you expect glycogen synthase, PK and PDH to be phosphorylated or dephosphorylated Give reasons to support your answer. 

Glucagon stimulation of liver cells in particular leads to phosphorylation of regulatory enzymes whereas insulin has the opposite effect. So, after a meal, we would expect glycolysis and glycogen synthesis to operate very efficiently so the control enzymes will be dephosphorylated. 

Activation of protein phosphatases. Paradosically, insulin stimulation via its tyrosine kinase receptor ultimately may lead to dephosphorylating enzymes... 

Phosphorylation (glucagon) and dephosphorylation (insulin) of rate-limiting enzymes... 

Hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl (HMG)-CoA reductase on the smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) is the rate-limiting enzyme. Insulin acth"ates the enzyme (dephosphorylation), and glucagon inhibits it. Mevalonate is the product, and the statin drugs competitively inhibit the enzyme. Cholesterol represses the expression o the HMG-CoA reductase gene and also increases degradation of the enzyme. 

Insulin action causes the enzyme to be dephosphorylated and therefore activated when blood glucose is elevated, in order to stimulate storage of fuel as fat. 

Insulin acts by binding to insulin receptors on cell membrane. The insulin receptor complex is internalized. By phosphorylation and dephosphorylation reactions there is stimulation or inhibition of enzymes involved in metabolic actions of insulin. Second messengers like phosphatidyl inositol glycan and DAG also mediate the action of insulin on metabolic enzymes. 

Fig. 7.21. Activation of glycogen-bound protein phosphatase I by insulin. Insulin has a stimulating effect on glycogen synthesis by initiating the dephosphorylation and activation of glycogen synthase and the dephosphorylation and inhibition of glycogen phosphorylase. Both enzymes (substrate S in the figure) are dephosphorylated by protein phosphatase PPIG. Insulin mediates the activation of a protein kinase (insulin-sensitive protein kinase) within an insulin-stimulated signal pathway, which phosphorylates and thus activates protein phosphatase PPIG at the PI site.

Glucagon or epinephrine decreases [fructose 2,6-bisphosphate]. The hormones do this by raising [cAMP] and bringing about phosphorylation of the bifunctional enzyme that makes and breaks down fructose 2,6-bisphosphate. Phosphorylation inactivates PFK-2 and activates FBPase-2, leading to breakdown of fructose 2,6-bisphosphate. Insulin increases [fructose 2,6-bisphosphate] by activating a phosphoprotein phosphatase that dephosphorylates (activates) PFK-2. 

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