Hybridization of s and p orbitals

Fig. 4. Molecular orbitals showing the hybridization of s and p orbitals, (a) Acetylene (C2H2, sp hybridization) (b) ethylene (C2H4, sp hybridization), and (c) methane (CH4, sp hybridization).

In an atom, the hybridization of s and p orbitals to form sp orbitals provides electron probability areas where bonds can form to make a molecule more stable than if the bonding had occurred in the individual s and p orbitals. The sp orbitals have one large lobe and one small lobe and are aligned along x, y, and z coordinates so that four sp orbitals, called sp3 orbitals because they are made of one s and three p orbitals, result in a tetrahedral-shaped arrangement. When there are three sp orbitals, made of one s and two p orbitals, called sp orbitals, the molecular has a triangular-planar shape. If there is bonding in two sp orbitals, made of one s and one p orbital, a linear molecule results. 

The bonds are considered to arise from the combination of two boron orbitals that are hybrids of s and p orbitals with a b orbital on the hydrogen atom. Graphically, the formation of the three-center molecular orbital can be represented as shown here ... 

Electron orbitals for some covalent bonds may overlap or hybridize. Hybridization of s and p orbitals to form sp and sp orbitals in carbon was discussed. Configurations of these hybrid orbitals were also noted. 

FIGURE 11. Combination of p orbitals on the same center resulting in rotation combination of s and p orbitals on the same center resulting in a hybrid orbital. 

For molecules with different structures different hybridization functions are appropriate. An infinity of hybridization functions can be formulated by linear combinations of s and p orbitals ... 

When 100 mL of blue dye is mixed with 100 mL of yellow dye 200 mL of green dye is formed. At the same way, when s and p orbitals are mixed (hybridized), hybrid orbitals which have both the characteristics of s and p orbitals are formed. 

Hybrid orbitals may be considered as perfectioned AOs, adopted in the calculation of localized MOs in polyatomic molecules, with the LCAO method (cf. section 1.17.1). In the case of hybrid orbitals sp, the four linear combinations of s and p orbitals (Tbi, Tc2, Te, Te ) that lead to tetrahedral symmetry are... 

Hybrids consisting of s and p orbitals without this angle restriction can be complex. We are not interested in such cases. 

The axially symmetric metal carbonyl fragments M(CO)n (n = 1, 3, 4) have three outpointing hybrid orbitals with a high proportion of s and p orbital character, which are suitable for forming cluster skeletal molecular orbitals (77, 78, 238). The number and radial characteristics of these frontier molecular orbitals, which are illustrated schematically in Fig. 26a, are reminiscent of the frontier orbitals of a main group diatomic hydride fragment E—H, where E = C or B (Fig. 26b). To describe this similarity the term isolobal has been introduced (77). Molecular orbital... 

The relationship between p or s character and bond angle will also be discussed in Chapter 6. For now we need only consider the possibility of s-p hybridization other than sp, sp2, and sp3. If we take the ratio of (he s contribution to the total orbital complement in these hybrids, we obtain 50%, 33%, and 25% s character, respectively, for these hybrids. A pure s orbital would be 100% 5, and a p orbital would have 0%r character. Since hybrid orbitals are constructed as linear combinations of s and p orbital wave functions,... 

Mathematically, the formation of sp3 or tetrahedral orbitals for methane is more complicated but not basically different. The results are four equivalent hybrid orbitals, each containing one part s to three parts p in each wave function, directed to the corners of a tetrahedron. As in the case of sp hybrids, the hybridization of s and p has... 

Atoms in the second row (such as C, N, 0, and F) have one s orbital and three p orbitals in the valence shell. These orbitals are usually mixed together to give us hybridized orbitals (sp3, sp2, and sp). We get these orbitals by mixing the properties of s and p orbitals. What do we mean by mixing ... 

Figure 5.3 Hybrid orbitals result from combinations of s and p orbitals.

The number of hybrid orbitals formed is always the same as the total number of s and p orbitals hybridized. 

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