Gamma, X-ray

Gamma X-rays Ultraviolet Infrared Microwave Radio and TV Waves... 

There are certain factors that affect the exposure and risk. These are the strengths of the source, type of radiation, and the distance. The energy order with respect to decreasing hazards is cosmic, gamma. X-rays > beta > a-particles. 

The purpose of the measurements made during a nuclear test is to characterise the source of gamma. X-ray, visible or neutron radiation. They also provide fundamental data in the field of thermonuclear fission and fusion plasma physics, useful for the evolution of weapon design. 

Arbon RE, Mincher BJ, Knighton WB. 1994. Gamma-X-Ray destruction of individual PCB congeners in neutral 2-propanol. Environ Sci Technol 28(12) 2191-2196. 

Gamma X-rays Ultraviolet Visible. Infrared Microwaves Radiowaves... 

Cerium is also used in glass that is subject to alpha, gamma. X-ray, hght and electron radiation. The cerium decreases the rate of discoloration of the glass, primarily by preventing the formation of divalent Fe (Emsley 2(X)1). 

It has even been shown (very recently) that, contrary to some previous claims, radiation treatment does not induce extra brittleness in the vials whichever radiation sources are used gamma, x-rays, or e-beams (Thiirk). On the stopper side some preliminary work done by Fran deGrazio showed also that there were some specific formulations well adapted to irradiation. More research is on its way and it looks promising. 

Determination of uranium in soil samples can be carried out by nondestructive analysis (NDA) methods that do not require separation of uranium (needed for alpha spectrometry or TIMS) or even digestion of the soil for analysis by ICPMS, ICPAES, or some other spectroscopic methods. These NDA methods can be divided into passive techniques that utilize the natural radioactive mission (gamma and x-ray) of the uranium and progeny radionuclides or active methods where neutrons or electromagnetic radiation are used to excite the uranium and the resultant emissions (gamma, x-rays, or neutrons) are monitored. In many cases, sample preparation is simpler for these nondestructive methods but the requiranent of a neutron source (from a nuclear reactor in many cases) or a radioactive source (x-ray or gamma) and relatively complex calibration and data interpretation procedures make the use of these techniques competitive only in some applications. In addition, the detection limits are usually inferior to the mass spectrometric techniques and the isotopic composition is not readily obtainable. 

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