Flux penetration

Here / is the density of light flux penetrating into the semiconductor, d = k/2n(2) cos represents the spatial period of the occurring sinusoidal... 

According to Abrikosov (1957), magnetic flux penetrates type-II superconductors as a periodic arrangement of quantized magnetic flux lines or vortices, i.e. a vor-... 

The irreversibility field (Hirr) Figure 4.56 illustrates the events as a magnetic field is applied to and then removed from a Type II superconductor below its critical temperature. At applied fields up to Hcl the response of the material is as expected for a Type I material. That is the field is excluded (the Meissner effect) and the material behaves as a perfect diamagnetic. At applied fields above Hcl there is some flux penetration and this increases until the material becomes normal at Hcl. 

Research activity in the field of superconductivity has been extensive and continues to be of interest globally. As a result of the discovery of the property of superconductivity, mercury was observed to conduct an electrical current without resistance. This observed state of zero resistance and perfect diamagnetism and the nature of magnetic flux penetration into superconducting materials have continued to draw the attention of materials scientists and solid state scientists. 

I Model 1 Parallel flux (penetration in slab-shaped particles or surface diffusion into strips with parallel edges). 

The most simple and widely adopted approach for describing the interaction of light with diffusing media is the Kubelka-Munk theory [8,9,10]. This approach provides a good approximation for diffuse incident radiation and applies reasonable well for directed incident beams where the light flux penetrating into the sample rapidly becomes diffuse and where regular reflection is... 

As indicated previously, shortwave radiation below 3.5 /rm originates from the Sun. When the direct flux penetrates into the atmosphere, it is progressively attenuated by absorption (ra) and scattering (rs). In this case, the source function must account for the diffuse radiation scattered into the beam from other directions as well as the direct sunlight... 

When two Josephson junctions are connected in parallel (Figure 13.38a), the maximum current, i., that can flow across the device is function of the magnetic flux enclosed in the loop. As the magnetic flux penetrating the loop varies, the value of icmax varies from a maximum at zero flux or an integral number of flux quanta to a minimum for a half-integer number of flux quanta. The relationship is given by ... 

These reactions are particularly important because the O ( P) and O ( D) atoms interact with molecules such as H2O, CH, hydrocarbons and O2. Moreover, the absorption cross-sections of O3 are of great importance to calculate the solar flux penetration especially in the UV wavelength range where ozone absorbs in the Huggins and Hartley bands. 

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