Equipment Rotating anodes

The progress achieved is closely linked to the development of both powerful detectors and brilliant X-ray sources (synchrotron radiation, rotating anode). Such point-focus equipment has replaced older slit-focus equipment (Kratky camera, Rigaku-Denki camera) in many laboratories, and the next step of instrumental progress is already discernible. With the X-ray free electron laser (XFEL) it will become possible to study very fast processes like the structure relaxation of elastomers after the removal of mechanical load. 

A rotating anode setup resembles a typical synchrotron beamline on a laboratory scale, and some progress concerning the optimum design of rotating setups was made by transferring sophisticated techniques for the optimization of beamline optics (Pedersen [72]) to rotating anode equipment. 

Powder X-ray diffraction patterns (XRD) for saponite and the corresponding PCH derivative were measured on Rigaku Rotaflex diffractometer equipped with a rotating anode under 45 kV and 100 mA and CuKa radiation (A = 1.542 nm). The scattering and receiving slits were 1/6 and 0.3 degrees, respectively. 

Small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) provides information on ultradisperse (e.g. colloidal) and generally poorly ordered materials. The technique is very close to RED (Section b) below) in several aspects, and can, in principle, be applied in the same equipment. Commercial equipments exist they are equipped with a rotating anode for generating high X-ray intensities. Interpretation needs a sophisticated software. 

Figure 3.13. The overall view of the goniostat of the Rigaku TTRAX rotating anode powder diffractometer with the horizontal goniometer axis, and synchronized rotations of both the x-ray source and detector arms. This goniometer is equipped with variable divergence, scatter and receiving slits, curved crystal monochromator, and scintillation detector. (Courtesy of Rigaku/MSC.)...

The powder X-ray diffraction (XRD) patterns were obtained on a Rigaku Rint - 2400 instrument equipped with a rotating anode and using Cu Ka radiation (wavelength = 0.1542 nm). Nitrogen adsorption/desorption isotherms... 

In order to determine the mineralogical phases by X-Ray Diffraction (XRD), a Philips X-Ray Diffractometer was used (model X Pert MPD) equipped with a graphite monochromator and rotational anode, operated at 40 kV and 40 mV. The data were collected via Cu-Ka radiation at a step of 0.01° and time p>er step of 2 s, in order to determine the phases present in the samples. 

In and out-plane X-ray diffraction pattern were recorded on a X-ray diffractometer equipped with a 4-axes goniometer (Rigaku ATX-G). CuKa radiation from copper rotating anode was used for the experiment. Incident angles (oo) for in plane geometry were between 0.14 and 0.36°, those for out of plane were between 0° and 5°. In-plane diffraction pattern is recorded as a result of the periodic structure of the direction perpendicular to the sample surface, out-plane diffraction pattern by structure of the direction parallel to the sample surface. 

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