Enlightenment: in France

Hampson, N., The Enlightenment in France , in R. Porter andT. Mikulas (eds). The Enlightenment in National (Cambridge Cambridge University Press, 1981), pp. 41-53. 

Alder, K. (1997). Engineering the revolution Arms and enlightenment in France, 1763-1815. Princeton Princeton University Press. 

Daniel Gordon, Public Opinion and the Civilizing Process in France The Example of Morellet, Eighteenth-Century Studies 22, 1989, 302-328 idem, Beyond the Social History of Ideas Morellet and the Enlightenment, in Andre Morellet (1727-1819) in the Republic of Letters and the French Revolution, ed. J. Merrick and D. Medlin (Lang, 1995). 

A. R. Albury, The Logic of Condillac and the Structure of French Chemical and Biological Theory, 1780-1801, Ph.D. dissertation, Johns Hopkins University, 1972 Daniel Brewer, The Discourse of Enlightenment in Eighteenth-Century France (Cambridge University Press, 1993). 

Roche, Daniel. Talent, Reason, and Sacrifice The Physician during the Enlightenment. In Medicine and Society in France, ed. R. Forster and O. Ranum (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1980). 

Three factors, in the end, conspired to make what Kula calls the "metrical revolution possible. First, the growth of market exchange encouraged uniformity in measures. Second, both popular sentiment and Enlightenment philosophy favored a single standard throughout France. Finally, the Revolution and especially Napoleonic state building actually enforced the metric system in France and the empire. 

This table of chemical symbols (see Figure 6) is found in the book titled The Roy-al Pharmacopoea, Galenical and Chymical, According to the Practice of the Most Eminent and Learned Physitians of France, and Published with their Several Approbations, the English edition published in 1678. The author, Moses Charas, fled religious persecution in France to join the enlightened intellectual environment in the England of Charles 11, who chartered the Royal Society. Its membership included Robert Boyle, Robert Hooke, and Isaac Newton. 

Joseph, her son, embraced Enlightenment, but unfortunately a bit too quickly. He abolished serfdom, and he ordered tolerance of all religion to the point of making Jews responsible for military service for the first time in Europe. But the Catholic church opposed him, and some segments of his population rose in revolt. When his brother Leopold succeeded Joseph, he had too much to straighten out in Austria to be able to help his sister in France. 

The remark in the last chapter that France was the scientifically acceptable culture of the 1700s may have caused a few curious second readings because in the last chapter we detailed the work of one Russian, two Scottish, one Swedish, and two English but no French chemists. The reason for this however was not a lack of material but rather such a surplus of material that it warrants a chapter unto itself. France was the center of European Enlightenment, and in France this passion for throwing off tradition took the extreme form revolution. France in the 1700s saw two revolutions—one political and one chemical. 

Politically speaking Enlightenment philosophy valued equality and freedom for individuals. In France there was a keen need for freedom and equality The country was in financial trouble, and those who were bearing the burden of the debt were powerless to do anything about... 

But what does modernism mean in France Antoine Compagnon has usefully distinguished between the German sense of modernity, which often implies a faith in the Enlightenment, and the much darker sensibility of... 

Keohane, N. O. (1980), Philosophy and the State in France. The Renaissance to the Enlightenment. Princeton, New Jersey Princeton University Press. 

Debus, Allen George. The Paracelsians in eighteenth-century France a renaissance tradition in the age of the enlightenment. Ambix 28, no. 1 (Mar 1981) 36-54. 

Kirsop, Wallace. Alchemists and antiquaries in enlightenment France. Austral J French Studs 12, no. 2 (May-Aug 1975) 168-191. 

Scientific chemistry has its roots in the European Enlightenment. All 92 naturally occurring elements were discovered and identified here. The map shows that England, France, and Sweden played central roles, whereas in Germany research was carried out in the various regional centers. With the advent of atomic research, the emphasis on the discovery of the artificial elements shifted to the USA. They were later joined by Russia (Dubna) and Germany (Institute for Heavy-Ion Research). 

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