Energy conversion, small scale

Large cogeneration units have had a long and successful operating history and are more durable than small-scale units. The larger systems operate at about 35% electrical conversion efficiency and 45% heat conversion efficiency. This means that 80% of the energy in the fuel is converted to heat or electricity. 

The publicly-funded fuel cell research program started in 1985, with the main activities performed at the Energy research Centre ofthe Netherlands (ECN). Between 1985 and 2001, about 100 million was invested by mixed public-private funds in the development of fuel cell and hydrogen energy. The objectives ofthe Dutch fuel cell programs were initially oriented to the application of coal gas in MCFC based systems. The MCFC activities were terminated in 2001, after an evaluation failed to indicate its commercial viability with natural gas. Afterwards, the activities shifted to SOFC and PEM technology for high efficient conversion of natural gas in small-scale decentralised units. 

There are several approaches to the conversion of sunlight into electrical or chemical energy. The first method is the direct transformation into electricity by means of photovoltaic cells. These are based on a purely photophysical process, and they have been used successfully in many small-scale applications to provide electrical power for artificial satellites, for... 

Ethanol conversion facilities can readily be designed to use fuel sources other than oil or natural gas. Small-scale on farm plants can utilize corn stover as a boiler fuel, and larger plants can rely on coal as a boiler fuel to produce process steam. The ethanol production process can then be viewed as a means of converting lower grade energy forms, such as coal, distressed crops or solar energy, into premium transportation fuel. 

The conversion of agricultural residues to more amenable forms of energy such as gas, oil or char shows good potential both on the large and small scale. This paper is concerned with the pyrolysis of agricultural residues using a rotary kiln to potentially supply the energy needs of one or a few farm operations. ... 

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