End voltage

Series capacitor - connected in series at the far end of a long transmission or FTP distribution line to offset the reactive component of the line impedance, contain the voltage drop and enhance the receiving-end voltage. It can support a transmission or distribution system in the following ways ... 

It can also be applied to an HT distribution network that has a high series inductive reactance to improve its receiving-end voltage. 

Figure 24.5 Receiving-end voltage phasor diagram on load, in an uncompensated line...

Mitintaining the receiving-end voltage at almost the rated voltage. 

Figure 24.13 Receiving-end voltage is flattened with the use of series capacitors...

Figure 24.15 The line length effect even when the sending-end and receiving-end voltages and currents are maintained at unity p.f.

Figure 24.14 Phasor position of sending-end and receiving-end voltages in an overhead line...

Table 24.4 Far-end voltage, due to the Ferranti effect, in a 400 kV TZ type line, at different line lengths...

For the system to remain stable under all conditions of loading, switching, or any other line disturbances it is essential that an uncompensated line is loaded at much below this level. Otherwise disturbances of a minor nature may result in undampened oscillations, and may even swing the receiving-end voltage beyond acceptable limits. It may even cause an outage of the system. It is therefore not practicable to operate an uncompensated line to its optimum level. For this we will analyse this equation for sin 0 and sin S as follows. 

When the line is compensated, and a near-flat voltage profile can be ensured so that during all such disturbances the receiving-end voltage will stay within permissible limits, the load angle can be raised to 45-60° to achieve a high power transfer. 

The receiving-end voltage rises with leading p.f.s and droops with lagging. This is illustrated with the help of phasor diagrams (Figures 24.22(a) and (b). 

A line can be theoretically loaded up to these levels. But at these levels, during a load variation, the far-end voltage may swing far beyond the desirable limits of 5% and the system may not remain stable. With the use of reactive control it is possible to transfer power at the optimum level (Pnias) hd yet maintain the far-end (or midpoint in symmetrical lines) voltage near to and also to have a near-flat voltage profile. 

Series eapaeitors These are used for line length compensation to help transmit power over long distances and also improve the stability level of the network. They are usually installed at the line ends or at the selected locations. They reduce Zq and enhance SIL. Pq, and boost the receiving-end voltage. 

Figure 24.26 Receiving-end voltage after shunt compensation...

Figure 46. Cycling performance of the Li-Al-CDMO cell (ML2430). The number of 100% charge-discharge cycles is calculated until the capacity drops to 100% of the nominal value (end voltage 2.0 V). The number of 5%, 20% and 60% charge-discharge cycles is calculated until an end voltage of 2.0 V.

Release of acetylcholine When an action potential propagated by the action of voltage-sensitive sodium channels arrives at a nerve ending, voltage-sensitive calcium channels in the presynaptic membrane open, causing an increase in the concentration of intracellular calcium. Elevated calcium levels promote the fusion of synaptic vesicles with the cell membrane and release of acetylcholine into the synapse. This release is blocked by botulinum toxin. By contrast, black widow spider venom causes all of the cellular acetylcholine stored in synaptic vesicles to spill into the synaptic gap. 

Charging cut-off voltage is defined to protect a cells overcharge and damage. Cut-off voltage is called also cutoff voltage or end-voltage. 

K depends in a rather complex way on many parameters such as the mass niA of the active materials per unit electrode area, the current density j, the end voltages Vend upon charge and discharge, the current efficiency 7, which is a measure for the electrochemical side-reactions, the thickness d and the porosity P of the active part of the electrode, the temperature T, the solvent/electrolyte system (SES), etc. On the basis of Faraday s law, however, simple relationships for the so-called theoretical specific capacity Ts.th can be derived easily. /sTs,th is identical to the reciprocal electrochemical equivalent me. ... 

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