Electromagnetic effects pressure

There are do2ens of flow meters available for the measurement of fluid flow (30). The primary measurements used to determine flow include differential pressure, variable area, Hquid level, electromagnetic effects, thermal effects, and light scattering. Most of the devices discussed herein are those used commonly in the process industries a few for the measurement of turbulence are also described. 

Measurement by Electromagnetic Effects. The magnetic flow meter is a device that measures the potential developed when an electrically conductive flow moves through an imposed magnetic field. The voltage developed is proportional to the volumetric flow rate of the fluid and the magnetic field strength. The process fluid sees only an empty pipe so that the device has a very low pressure drop. The device is useful for the measurement of slurries and other fluid systems where an accumulation of another phase could interfere with flow measurement by other devices. The meter must be installed in a section of pipe that is much less conductive than the fluid. This limits its appHcabiHty in many industrial situations. 

Numerous atomization techniques have evolved for the production of metal/alloy powders or as a step in spray forming processes. Atomization of melts may be achieved by a variety of means such as aerodynamic, hydrodynamic, mechanical, ultrasonic, electrostatic, electromagnetic, or pressure effect, or a combination of some of these effects. Some of the atomization techniques have been extensively developed and applied to commercial productions, including (a) two-fluid atomization using gas, water, or oil (i.e., gas atomization, water atomization, oil atomization), (b) vacuum atomization, and (c) rotating electrode atomization. Two-fluid atomization... 

The Casimir effect for the electromagnetic field between parallel metallic plates can be obtained from Eq. (23) the Casimir energy and pressure are... 

In section IID, we introduced the utilization of chemical enhancement effect for higher sensitivity in TERS. Here, it should be pointed out that in addition to electromagnetic enhancement and chemical enhancement effects, physical deformation induced by tip-applied force showed extra enhancement effect in TERS on carbon materials such as SWNTs and fullerene molecules (Yano et al. 2005, 2006 Verma et al. 2006). This tip-pressurized effect is a unique feature of TERS and not observable in SERS. Since the spatial resolution of TERS with tip-pressurized effect is determined by the size of the very end of the metallic tip that has direct contact with the molecules, this is a very promising approach to improve the spatial resolution of the near-field microscope. 

In conclusion it can be stated that the results from scattering data and atom experiments are still contradictory and therefore need further investigation. From the side of the atom experiments it should be clarified whether the shift and the width values of pionic hydrogen and deuterium are true strong interaction effects and are not spoiled by the interaction of the pionic atom with the surrounding molecules. In other words the shift and the width measurements for pionic hydrogen and deuterium should be extrapolated to zero pressure. In a second step state of the art electromagnetic corrections should be applied. 

Mathematical form of dependence on material properties, 43 Mathematical form of the charge-fluctuation free energy, 45 Frequencies at which e s, A s, and Rn s are evaluated, 46 About the frequency spectrum, 51 Retardation screening from the finite velocity of the electromagnetic signal, 51 Effective power law of van der Waals interaction versus separation, 55 Van der Waals pressure, 57 Asymmetric systems, 58... 

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