Electrochemical reactor open system

On the other hand, well engineered manufacturing operations depend on the availability of manipulated variables for real-time feedback control. These variables usually operate at macroscopic length scales (e.g. the power to heat lamps above a wafer, the fractional opening of valves on flows into and out of a chemical reactor, the applied potential across electrodes in an electrochemical process). The combination of a need for product quality at the molecular scale with the economic necessity that feedback control systems utilize macroscopic manipulated variables motivates the creation of methods for the simulation, design and control of multiscale systems. 

A second obvious area of application is in continuous flow analysis or flow injection analysis systems, in which the immobilized molecules form reactors that can be readily inserted and replaced in a flow analysis manifold. The physical form of the enzymes varies widely packed-bed reactors are often used, but open-tube wall reactors and membrane reactors have also been investigated. A principal advantage of all such systems is that they can use all the optical or electrochemical detectors routinely used in flow analysis. However, the problems of producing stable and robust immobilized enzyme reactors have proved more intractable than many researchers hoped, and other advances (e.g.. the use of more sensitive detectors, improved availability of low-cost soluble enzymes) have minimized the advantages of using solid phase enzymes. 

---